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Lecture Notes Statistics | Tilburg University | 2026/27

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Aantekeningen van het college Statistics for Pre Master Students aan Tilburg University. De stof behandelt fundamentele concepten zoals beschrijvende en inferentiële statistiek, meetniveaus (nominaal, ordinaal, interval, ratio), centrale tendentie (mode, mediaan, gemiddelde), en spreidingsmaten (variantie, standaarddeviatie, z-scores). Uitstekend studiemateriaal voor het begrijpen van data-inspectie, grafische weergave en statistische basisprincipes - essentieel voor het voorbereiden op toetsen en toekomstige statistiekcursussen.

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STATISTICS
LECTURE 1
What do we use statistics for:

 Descriptive statistics means describe or summarize data
 Inferential statistics means drawing inferences about populations.
 Statistical modelling means studying complex multivariate relationships.



Measurement levels

 Nominal (lowest): Nominal variables classifies cases into 2 or more categories.
These categories must be exhaustive (all possibilities should be covered) and
mutually exclusive (every case fits onto one category alone). The mean of a
nominal level is meaningless, like eye colour.
 Ordinal: Numbers express different things in an ordered way. they express more
of less of a quantity, but the difference between the pairs of categories is not
necessarily the same in quantity. However the categories must have a meaningful
ranking.
 Interval: numbers express differences in quantity using a common unit with equal
intervals between the neighbouring data points, nut no true zero point. (like
temperature)
 Ratio (highest): Numbers express differences in quantity on a common unit and
have a natural zero point, like weight, length or income. This allows for relative
comparisons.

SPSS combines the interval and ratio level and calls is scale, ordinal and
nominal are used.

Measurement level is a property of the measurement values, not an intrinsic
property of the thing you are measuring.



DATA INSPECTION

Every analysis starts with data inspection. In general we want to inspect:

 Central tendency
 Variability
 Bivariate association



To do this we can use graphs:

 Bar charts  are nominal and ordinal data. Be aware of misleading scales, think
about the average height of woman in india chart.
 Histogram  scale data (interval and ratio)
 Scatterplot  scale data, 2+ variables.

,  Gauss curve: de Gauss-curve beschrijft een situatie waarin de meeste
waarnemingen rond een gemiddelde liggen en extreme waarden steeds
zeldzamer worden.



Central tendencies

 Mode: the score that is observed the most (for nominal, ordinal or scale data)
 Median: the score that separates the higher half from the lower half (for ordinal or
scale data that are not normally distributed)
 Mean: sum of all scores divided by the total number of scores.

You can have normal or skewed distributions. So check to see if your distribution is
normal, from there you can choose which central tendency to use.




LECTURE 2

VARIABILITY

Variance

Variance is een maat voor de spreiding van scores rondom het gemiddelde. Het vertelt
ons dus hoe ver de scores gemiddeld van het gemiddelde afliggen. Wanneer de scores
dicht bij elkaar liggen, is de variance klein. Wanneer de scores sterk verspreid zijn, is de
variance groot.

Om de variance te berekenen, kijk je eerst naar het verschil tussen iedere score en het
gemiddelde. Deze verschillen noemen we de afwijkingen van het gemiddelde.
Sommige afwijkingen zijn positief en andere negatief. Als we deze gewone afwijkingen bij
elkaar zouden optellen, zouden ze elkaar opheffen. Daarom worden de afwijkingen eerst
gekwadrateerd. Daarna worden de gekwadrateerde afwijkingen bij elkaar opgeteld en
gedeeld door het aantal observaties.

Bijvoorbeeld, bij de scores 4, 5, 6, 7 en 8 is het gemiddelde 6. De afwijkingen van het
gemiddelde zijn -2, -1, 0, +1 en +2. Na het kwadrateren krijgen we 4, 1, 0, 1 en 4. De
som hiervan is 10. Wanneer we dit delen door 5 observaties, krijgen we een variance van
2.

De variance geeft dus informatie over de spreiding van de data, maar is soms lastig te
interpreteren omdat de afwijkingen zijn gekwadrateerd.

Standard deviation

De standard deviation (SD), oftewel standaarddeviatie, is de wortel van de variance.
Hierdoor krijgen we de spreiding weer terug in dezelfde eenheid als de oorspronkelijke
scores.

De formule is:

SD = √Variance

Als de variance bijvoorbeeld 2 is, dan is:

Table of contents

  1. 01 Lecture 1 1
    1. Data inspection 1
  2. 02 Lecture 2 2
    1. variability 2
    2. Inferential statistics 5
  3. 03 Lecture 3 10
    1. T-distribution 10
    2. Confidence interval 11

Connected book
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Publisher: Unknown ISBN: 9781071807491 Edition: 3

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Uploaded on
September 14, 2026
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2026/2027
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Dr. paul lodder
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