Summary – Criminological
research for social science
students
Table of Contents
Week 1.............................................................................................................. 2
Week 2............................................................................................................ 11
Week 3............................................................................................................ 20
Week 4............................................................................................................ 27
Week 5............................................................................................................ 35
Week 6............................................................................................................ 42
Week 7............................................................................................................ 47
Week 8............................................................................................................ 56
1
, Week 1
Criminological research is an interdisciplinary science, meaning it draws
from multiple fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics,
law and political science.
Criminological research also has an empirical focus. This means it is based
on direct or indirect observations and experiences rather than purely
abstract speculation.
There are 3 levels of analysis:
1. Micro level – focuses on individuals
2. Meso level – focuses on groups, organizations, communities or
institutions
3. Macro level – focuses on large-scale social structures, systems and
patterns
Qualitative research Quantitative
- In-depth exploration of a - Measuring the size/nature of a
phenomenon; building new phenomenon; testing theory;
theories; uncovering the how generalization
and why - Dominant
- Far less common! - Provides broad data (N=Large)
- Provides in-depth data
(N=small)
combination strengthens research quality
Quantitative research
Quantitative research involves the systematic and empirical study of crime,
criminal behavior and criminal justice responses through the use of
numerical data and statistical techniques. It focuses on observable
phenomena that can be measured objectively, using sources such as official
crime statistics, non-judicial data, self-report surveys, and victim or offender
surveys.
2
,This type of research is used to describe crime trends and patterns, test
criminological theories with empirical evidence, predict crime occurrences
and risk factors, and evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice policies
and interventions.
Types of sampling:
Probability sampling – every member of the population has a known
and non-zero change of being selected, which helps ensure that the
results are representative and can be generalized to the wider
population
Simple random sampling – participants are selected entirely random
Systematic sampling – selecting every kth person from a list
Stratified sampling – dividing the population into relevant
subgroups, then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup
Cluster sampling – selecting whole groups or clusters
4 types of quantitative research designs:
1. Descriptive – focuses on taking a ‘snapshot’ of crime patterns or the
functioning of the criminal justice system at a specific point in time or
over a certain period. Its main aim is to describe what is happening,
rather than to explain why it is happening. This can include examining
the characteristics of offenders, victims, or criminal events, as well as
looking at crime frequency, spatial distribution, population profiles,
crime types and changes over time
It informs:
Crime mapping (law enforcement)
Resource allocation (policy makers)
Crime reporting (journalists)
Further research design (academics/science)
limitations: it does not explain the causes of crime and often
depends on how crime is legally defined, which can change over
time. It usually focuses only on reported crime, meaning that
unreported crime (dark number), may be missing. In addition,
descriptive data can lack context, oversimplify the complexity of
reality, and its quality depends heavily on the accuracy and
reliability of the data sources
2. correlational – examines the relationship between two or more
variables in order to determine whether they are statistically
associated. It is often used to explore risk factors and predictors of
3
, criminal behavior, and to identify important variables by using existing
datasets.
A well-known example is Marcus Felson’s routine activity approach,
which used official crime statistics, such as UCR reports, together with
labor force and census data to explain changes in crime rates in the
United States between 1947 and 1974.
Limitations: it cannot establish causality. A relationship between
two variables does not necessarily mean that one causes the
other. The relationship may be influenced by confounding
variables, meaning a third factor may affect both variables.
Correlational findings can also produce spurious relationships
that are misleading. What motivates the offender?
3. Experimental – used to test causal relationships between variables,
often through randomized controlled trials. In this type of research, one
variable, the independent variable, is manipulated in order to observe
its effect on another variable, the dependent variable, while other
factors are controlled as much as possible. It is useful for identifying
cause-and-effect relationships, evaluating whether certain
interventions can reduce crime
Limitations: findings may have low generalizability or external
validity, meaning that the results from one setting may not apply
to other contexts. Experiments can also be expensive and time-
consuming to conduct. Ethical issues may also arise around
informed consent and possible harm to participants. Finally,
outcomes such as recidivism can be influenced by many other
factors, such as employment, social bonds, or personal
circumstances, which makes it difficult to isolate the effect of the
intervention completely
4. Longitudinal – collecting data from the same individuals or groups
over an extended period of time, often across months or years. This
allows researchers to track changes, development, and long-term
effects related to crime, criminal behavior and criminal justice
outcomes. Longitudinal studies are useful for observing patterns over
time, studying the causes and consequences of crime, and testing life-
course theories of criminal behavior
This type of research can also examine how early life experiences are
related to later outcomes, such as offending, incarceration, or
desistance from crime.
Limitations: time-consuming and requires long-term planning,
funding and organization. Another challenge is participant
4
research for social science
students
Table of Contents
Week 1.............................................................................................................. 2
Week 2............................................................................................................ 11
Week 3............................................................................................................ 20
Week 4............................................................................................................ 27
Week 5............................................................................................................ 35
Week 6............................................................................................................ 42
Week 7............................................................................................................ 47
Week 8............................................................................................................ 56
1
, Week 1
Criminological research is an interdisciplinary science, meaning it draws
from multiple fields such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics,
law and political science.
Criminological research also has an empirical focus. This means it is based
on direct or indirect observations and experiences rather than purely
abstract speculation.
There are 3 levels of analysis:
1. Micro level – focuses on individuals
2. Meso level – focuses on groups, organizations, communities or
institutions
3. Macro level – focuses on large-scale social structures, systems and
patterns
Qualitative research Quantitative
- In-depth exploration of a - Measuring the size/nature of a
phenomenon; building new phenomenon; testing theory;
theories; uncovering the how generalization
and why - Dominant
- Far less common! - Provides broad data (N=Large)
- Provides in-depth data
(N=small)
combination strengthens research quality
Quantitative research
Quantitative research involves the systematic and empirical study of crime,
criminal behavior and criminal justice responses through the use of
numerical data and statistical techniques. It focuses on observable
phenomena that can be measured objectively, using sources such as official
crime statistics, non-judicial data, self-report surveys, and victim or offender
surveys.
2
,This type of research is used to describe crime trends and patterns, test
criminological theories with empirical evidence, predict crime occurrences
and risk factors, and evaluate the effectiveness of criminal justice policies
and interventions.
Types of sampling:
Probability sampling – every member of the population has a known
and non-zero change of being selected, which helps ensure that the
results are representative and can be generalized to the wider
population
Simple random sampling – participants are selected entirely random
Systematic sampling – selecting every kth person from a list
Stratified sampling – dividing the population into relevant
subgroups, then randomly selecting participants from each subgroup
Cluster sampling – selecting whole groups or clusters
4 types of quantitative research designs:
1. Descriptive – focuses on taking a ‘snapshot’ of crime patterns or the
functioning of the criminal justice system at a specific point in time or
over a certain period. Its main aim is to describe what is happening,
rather than to explain why it is happening. This can include examining
the characteristics of offenders, victims, or criminal events, as well as
looking at crime frequency, spatial distribution, population profiles,
crime types and changes over time
It informs:
Crime mapping (law enforcement)
Resource allocation (policy makers)
Crime reporting (journalists)
Further research design (academics/science)
limitations: it does not explain the causes of crime and often
depends on how crime is legally defined, which can change over
time. It usually focuses only on reported crime, meaning that
unreported crime (dark number), may be missing. In addition,
descriptive data can lack context, oversimplify the complexity of
reality, and its quality depends heavily on the accuracy and
reliability of the data sources
2. correlational – examines the relationship between two or more
variables in order to determine whether they are statistically
associated. It is often used to explore risk factors and predictors of
3
, criminal behavior, and to identify important variables by using existing
datasets.
A well-known example is Marcus Felson’s routine activity approach,
which used official crime statistics, such as UCR reports, together with
labor force and census data to explain changes in crime rates in the
United States between 1947 and 1974.
Limitations: it cannot establish causality. A relationship between
two variables does not necessarily mean that one causes the
other. The relationship may be influenced by confounding
variables, meaning a third factor may affect both variables.
Correlational findings can also produce spurious relationships
that are misleading. What motivates the offender?
3. Experimental – used to test causal relationships between variables,
often through randomized controlled trials. In this type of research, one
variable, the independent variable, is manipulated in order to observe
its effect on another variable, the dependent variable, while other
factors are controlled as much as possible. It is useful for identifying
cause-and-effect relationships, evaluating whether certain
interventions can reduce crime
Limitations: findings may have low generalizability or external
validity, meaning that the results from one setting may not apply
to other contexts. Experiments can also be expensive and time-
consuming to conduct. Ethical issues may also arise around
informed consent and possible harm to participants. Finally,
outcomes such as recidivism can be influenced by many other
factors, such as employment, social bonds, or personal
circumstances, which makes it difficult to isolate the effect of the
intervention completely
4. Longitudinal – collecting data from the same individuals or groups
over an extended period of time, often across months or years. This
allows researchers to track changes, development, and long-term
effects related to crime, criminal behavior and criminal justice
outcomes. Longitudinal studies are useful for observing patterns over
time, studying the causes and consequences of crime, and testing life-
course theories of criminal behavior
This type of research can also examine how early life experiences are
related to later outcomes, such as offending, incarceration, or
desistance from crime.
Limitations: time-consuming and requires long-term planning,
funding and organization. Another challenge is participant
4
