Biology Senior exit Comprehensive Resource To Help You Ace 2026-2027 Exams Includes
Frequently Tested Questions With ELABORATED 100% Correct COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
Guaranteed Pass First Attempt!! Current Update!!
4 main macromolecules carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
monomers building blocks of macromolecules or polymers
are the monomers of carbohydrates monosaccharides
are the monomers of proteins amino acids
are the monomers of lipids fatty acids
are the monomers of DNA nucleotides
1st law of thermodynamics energy can't be created or destroyed, only converted
every energy transfer or transformation increases the en-
second law of thermodynamics
tropy of the universe
entropy measure of disorder or randomness of a system
protein that acts as a biological catalyst and speeds up a
enzyme
chemical reaction
glycolysis, citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and
3 ATP producing pathways
beta oxidation
the breakdown of glucose/sugar by enzymes in anaerobic
glycolysis
conditions, releasing energy and pyruvic acid
ATP adenosine triphosphate, main source of energy for cells
glucose C6H12O6
how is energy released from ATP a phosphate is removed
the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction
hydrolysis
with water
cells release energy in the absence of oxygen, makes
fermentation
alcohol and lactic acid
second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid
krebs cycle is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of ener-
gy-extracting reactions in mitochondria
electron transport chain
,series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high-energy
electrons during ATP-generating reactions
enzyme that catalyzes the reaction that adds a high-energy
ATP synthase
phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
where does photosynthesis occur chloroplasts in plant cells
where does cellular respiration occur mitochondria and cytoplasm
transcription DNA is converted to RNA
mRNA decoded to assemble polypeptides and a protein is
translation
produced
phosphorylation, acetylation, hydroxylation, and methyla-
four types of post translational modification
tion
phosphorylation the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
acetylation addition of acetyl group
hydroxylation addition of a hydroxyl group
methylation addition of a methyl group
proteolysis breakdown proteins
3 sites of major protein sorting golgi complex, plasma membrane, and endosomes
Vesicle formed when a cell takes up material from the sur-
endosome
rounding environment using the process of endocytosis
where are transmembrane proteins inserted endoplasmic reticulum membrane
transmembrane proteins span the membrane
the sorting process in which the synthesis of certain eu-
karyotic proteins begins in the cytosol and then halts tem-
cotranslational sorting
porarily until the ribosome has become bound to the ER
membrane
four types of chemical signaling found in cells
, paracrine signaling, autocrine signaling, endocrine sig-
naling, and signaling by direct contact
signal released from a cell has an ettect on neighboring
paracrine signaling
cells
cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves
autocrine signaling
secrete (target themselves)
secreted molecules dittuse into the bloodstream and trig-
endocrine signaling
ger responses in target cells anywhere in the body
signaling by direct contact cell targets a neighboring cell through a gap junction
channel between two adjacent cells that allows substances
gap junction
to pass between cells, enabling the cells to communicate
cell smallest unit of life
3 things all cells have in common cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA
have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles,
eukaryotic cells
more complex
do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound or-
prokaryotic cells
ganelles, unicellular and often bacteria
specialized structure that performs important cellular
organelle
functions within a eukaryotic cell
nucleus control center of the cell that contains genetic material
chromatin form of DNA found inside nuclear membrane
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain
chromosomes
the genes
nucleolus produces ribosomes
ribosomes protein synthesis
cytoplasm
Frequently Tested Questions With ELABORATED 100% Correct COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
Guaranteed Pass First Attempt!! Current Update!!
4 main macromolecules carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
monomers building blocks of macromolecules or polymers
are the monomers of carbohydrates monosaccharides
are the monomers of proteins amino acids
are the monomers of lipids fatty acids
are the monomers of DNA nucleotides
1st law of thermodynamics energy can't be created or destroyed, only converted
every energy transfer or transformation increases the en-
second law of thermodynamics
tropy of the universe
entropy measure of disorder or randomness of a system
protein that acts as a biological catalyst and speeds up a
enzyme
chemical reaction
glycolysis, citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, and
3 ATP producing pathways
beta oxidation
the breakdown of glucose/sugar by enzymes in anaerobic
glycolysis
conditions, releasing energy and pyruvic acid
ATP adenosine triphosphate, main source of energy for cells
glucose C6H12O6
how is energy released from ATP a phosphate is removed
the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction
hydrolysis
with water
cells release energy in the absence of oxygen, makes
fermentation
alcohol and lactic acid
second stage of cellular respiration, in which pyruvic acid
krebs cycle is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of ener-
gy-extracting reactions in mitochondria
electron transport chain
,series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high-energy
electrons during ATP-generating reactions
enzyme that catalyzes the reaction that adds a high-energy
ATP synthase
phosphate group to ADP to form ATP
where does photosynthesis occur chloroplasts in plant cells
where does cellular respiration occur mitochondria and cytoplasm
transcription DNA is converted to RNA
mRNA decoded to assemble polypeptides and a protein is
translation
produced
phosphorylation, acetylation, hydroxylation, and methyla-
four types of post translational modification
tion
phosphorylation the addition of a phosphate group to a molecule
acetylation addition of acetyl group
hydroxylation addition of a hydroxyl group
methylation addition of a methyl group
proteolysis breakdown proteins
3 sites of major protein sorting golgi complex, plasma membrane, and endosomes
Vesicle formed when a cell takes up material from the sur-
endosome
rounding environment using the process of endocytosis
where are transmembrane proteins inserted endoplasmic reticulum membrane
transmembrane proteins span the membrane
the sorting process in which the synthesis of certain eu-
karyotic proteins begins in the cytosol and then halts tem-
cotranslational sorting
porarily until the ribosome has become bound to the ER
membrane
four types of chemical signaling found in cells
, paracrine signaling, autocrine signaling, endocrine sig-
naling, and signaling by direct contact
signal released from a cell has an ettect on neighboring
paracrine signaling
cells
cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves
autocrine signaling
secrete (target themselves)
secreted molecules dittuse into the bloodstream and trig-
endocrine signaling
ger responses in target cells anywhere in the body
signaling by direct contact cell targets a neighboring cell through a gap junction
channel between two adjacent cells that allows substances
gap junction
to pass between cells, enabling the cells to communicate
cell smallest unit of life
3 things all cells have in common cell membrane, cytoplasm, DNA
have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles,
eukaryotic cells
more complex
do not have a nucleus or other membrane-bound or-
prokaryotic cells
ganelles, unicellular and often bacteria
specialized structure that performs important cellular
organelle
functions within a eukaryotic cell
nucleus control center of the cell that contains genetic material
chromatin form of DNA found inside nuclear membrane
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain
chromosomes
the genes
nucleolus produces ribosomes
ribosomes protein synthesis
cytoplasm
