DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Tuesday, 08 June 2021 10:13
Nature or nurture?
Continuity or discontinuity?
Passive or active involvement?
Universal or cultural context?
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 1
,NATURE OR NURTURE?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:10
⚫ Two short case studies: the Monkey boy and the Boy who became a girl. Both cases elicit questions that are illustrative of
the so-called nature-nurture issue.
Nature
refers to biological determinants such as genetic, neurological and hormonal factors.
Nurture
refers to environmental factors such as the social (e.g. parenting styles) and the physical environment (e.g. poverty).
⚫ This debate centres on the question of whether the child’s development is the result of biological and especially genetic factors
(nature) or environmental influences (nurture).
⚫ Although this debate is one of the oldest in psychology and the related sciences, it has continued to rage on (especially in certain
circles).
⚫ There are several reasons why this debate has continued for so long:
Firstly, the debate is heavily interwoven with arguments that are not strictly scientific. Political and
religious belief systems in particular, tend to colour these arguments, with the inevitable result that emotion rather
than scientific data often triumphs. A typical example is the issue of homosexuality, where political and religious
leaders tend to support the nurture approach where it is believed that homosexuality is caused by environmental factors
and that people therefore have a choice in their sexual orientation. Modern scientists, on the other hand, tend to
acknowledge that biological factors play a more important role in homosexuality than was previously accepted.
Secondly, the nature-nurture issue encompasses such a wide variety of behaviours that it is relatively easy to find
an example that will support either viewpoint. For instance, motor development may be regarded as an example that
behaviour is genetically determined, while socialisation may be used as evidence that behaviour is a product of the
environment.
A third factor which makes it difficult to solve the nature-nurture debate is that the cause of a specific behaviour
is often very difficult to prove. For example, if a child who was traumatised develops depression, how could one prove
that the depression was caused by the trauma or would not have developed anyway (i.e. due to genetic/biological reasons)?
After all, many children are traumatised but never develop depression, while many others in a positive environment develop
depression. This cause-effect issue is very important in psychology and should always be kept in mind. The issue is illustrated
by the well-known joke that diet drinks cause people to become overweight: just look at how many people who drink diet drinks
are overweight! A more serious example: should one find that people who abuse drugs are not very intelligent, how reliable is it
to say that drug abuse leads to a low intelligence? It could be just the opposite: Because of an already existing low intelligence,
the person started to abuse drugs. Thus, if two factors, A and B, co-exist or are linked, it is not always easy to
determine whether A caused B or whether B caused A – or whether there is a causal relationship at all. This is a
common mistake made by people and should be avoided at all costs.
⚫ Although the nature-nurture debate has not been fully resolved, most psychologists agree that the debate no longer centres on
which of nature or nurture is the more important – but rather on how each of these factors contributes to specific behaviours,
situations and individuals.
⚫ It is generally accepted that the interaction between heredity and environment is much more important than the respective
contribution of each. The unique effect of the interaction is also acknowledged.
⚫ This means that the effect of this interaction on the individual will differ from person to person, from situation to situation and
from time to time.
⚫ There is, therefore, no set formula to determine the respective effect of nature or nurture on a particular person. However, a useful
guideline in most cases is that heredity sets the limits and the environment determines to what extent a specific characteristic will
develop between these limits.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 2
,CONTINUITY OR DISCONTINUITY?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:11
⚫ The core question concerning this issue is whether human development is a continuous (gradual and smooth) or a
discontinuous process (abrupt and occurring in distinct steps or stages).
⚫ In other words, is development gradual like the steady growth of a tree or is it comparable with the distinct stages during which a
caterpillar changes into a butterfly?
⚫ There seems to be enough evidence to conclude that both these viewpoints are correct, depending on the type of behaviour. For
example, the gradual way in which children learn to talk and express themselves as their vocabulary expands and the way they develop
cognitively, is practical evidence that the continuity viewpoint holds water to a certain extent. On the other hand, the relatively sudden
hormonal changes that lead to sexual maturation during adolescence show that the discontinuity viewpoint is also valid.
⚫ Another interesting aspect of the continuity-discontinuity issue is whether the early characteristics of the child
continue into his or her later life as an adult. In other words, is later behaviour predictable if the predictions are based on a
child’s early behaviour? For example, will the quiet and obedient child also be a quiet and obedient adolescent and adult? What about the
child who is an outstanding sportsperson or scholar? Will he or she still be outstanding in later life? Regardless of what is reflected in the
popular media and believed by many, it is not easy at all to predict future human behaviour. From experience, you will know how many of
your friends whom you have not seen for many years have changed, even to the extent that you have nothing in common anymore. It is
equally true, on the other hand, that you often run into old friends that have basically not changed, who are “just the same old
Lerato/Francois”.
⚫ A good guideline is that past and present behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour – but this does not
imply that it is fully reliable. As mentioned before, human behaviour is just too complex and unique to be represented in a rigid formula.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 3
, PASSIVE OR ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:19
⚫ The issue here is whether children have no part in their development and therefore are at the mercy of their
environment or whether they can play an active role in their own development.
To use John Locke’s blank slate theory as an illustration:
is it only the environment that writes on the slate or does the child also contribute and can he or she even delete what the environment
has written?
⚫ The present situation is that most psychologists agree that although the influence of the environment cannot be denied, children also
take an active part in their own development.
⚫ Take for instance how people’s responses (an important environmental factor in the development of the child) may differ towards an
obnoxious versus a pleasant child.
⚫ Moreover, children who, regardless of continuous efforts by their parents and the school, do not do their schoolwork, to a large extent
shape their own future, as do children who, often even without encouragement and role models, adhere to the expectations and norms of
society and achieve success.
⚫ Most psychologists acknowledge that the unique way in which children cognitively and emotionally interpret and process their
experiences have a significant influence on their development.
⚫ However, psychologists are still debating especially two questions in this regard:
Firstly, to what degree are children able to shape their own development?
Secondly, which factors are responsible for a child’s unique interpretation and processing of his or
her world?
Further research is needed to provide answers to these questions.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 4
Tuesday, 08 June 2021 10:13
Nature or nurture?
Continuity or discontinuity?
Passive or active involvement?
Universal or cultural context?
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 1
,NATURE OR NURTURE?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:10
⚫ Two short case studies: the Monkey boy and the Boy who became a girl. Both cases elicit questions that are illustrative of
the so-called nature-nurture issue.
Nature
refers to biological determinants such as genetic, neurological and hormonal factors.
Nurture
refers to environmental factors such as the social (e.g. parenting styles) and the physical environment (e.g. poverty).
⚫ This debate centres on the question of whether the child’s development is the result of biological and especially genetic factors
(nature) or environmental influences (nurture).
⚫ Although this debate is one of the oldest in psychology and the related sciences, it has continued to rage on (especially in certain
circles).
⚫ There are several reasons why this debate has continued for so long:
Firstly, the debate is heavily interwoven with arguments that are not strictly scientific. Political and
religious belief systems in particular, tend to colour these arguments, with the inevitable result that emotion rather
than scientific data often triumphs. A typical example is the issue of homosexuality, where political and religious
leaders tend to support the nurture approach where it is believed that homosexuality is caused by environmental factors
and that people therefore have a choice in their sexual orientation. Modern scientists, on the other hand, tend to
acknowledge that biological factors play a more important role in homosexuality than was previously accepted.
Secondly, the nature-nurture issue encompasses such a wide variety of behaviours that it is relatively easy to find
an example that will support either viewpoint. For instance, motor development may be regarded as an example that
behaviour is genetically determined, while socialisation may be used as evidence that behaviour is a product of the
environment.
A third factor which makes it difficult to solve the nature-nurture debate is that the cause of a specific behaviour
is often very difficult to prove. For example, if a child who was traumatised develops depression, how could one prove
that the depression was caused by the trauma or would not have developed anyway (i.e. due to genetic/biological reasons)?
After all, many children are traumatised but never develop depression, while many others in a positive environment develop
depression. This cause-effect issue is very important in psychology and should always be kept in mind. The issue is illustrated
by the well-known joke that diet drinks cause people to become overweight: just look at how many people who drink diet drinks
are overweight! A more serious example: should one find that people who abuse drugs are not very intelligent, how reliable is it
to say that drug abuse leads to a low intelligence? It could be just the opposite: Because of an already existing low intelligence,
the person started to abuse drugs. Thus, if two factors, A and B, co-exist or are linked, it is not always easy to
determine whether A caused B or whether B caused A – or whether there is a causal relationship at all. This is a
common mistake made by people and should be avoided at all costs.
⚫ Although the nature-nurture debate has not been fully resolved, most psychologists agree that the debate no longer centres on
which of nature or nurture is the more important – but rather on how each of these factors contributes to specific behaviours,
situations and individuals.
⚫ It is generally accepted that the interaction between heredity and environment is much more important than the respective
contribution of each. The unique effect of the interaction is also acknowledged.
⚫ This means that the effect of this interaction on the individual will differ from person to person, from situation to situation and
from time to time.
⚫ There is, therefore, no set formula to determine the respective effect of nature or nurture on a particular person. However, a useful
guideline in most cases is that heredity sets the limits and the environment determines to what extent a specific characteristic will
develop between these limits.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 2
,CONTINUITY OR DISCONTINUITY?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:11
⚫ The core question concerning this issue is whether human development is a continuous (gradual and smooth) or a
discontinuous process (abrupt and occurring in distinct steps or stages).
⚫ In other words, is development gradual like the steady growth of a tree or is it comparable with the distinct stages during which a
caterpillar changes into a butterfly?
⚫ There seems to be enough evidence to conclude that both these viewpoints are correct, depending on the type of behaviour. For
example, the gradual way in which children learn to talk and express themselves as their vocabulary expands and the way they develop
cognitively, is practical evidence that the continuity viewpoint holds water to a certain extent. On the other hand, the relatively sudden
hormonal changes that lead to sexual maturation during adolescence show that the discontinuity viewpoint is also valid.
⚫ Another interesting aspect of the continuity-discontinuity issue is whether the early characteristics of the child
continue into his or her later life as an adult. In other words, is later behaviour predictable if the predictions are based on a
child’s early behaviour? For example, will the quiet and obedient child also be a quiet and obedient adolescent and adult? What about the
child who is an outstanding sportsperson or scholar? Will he or she still be outstanding in later life? Regardless of what is reflected in the
popular media and believed by many, it is not easy at all to predict future human behaviour. From experience, you will know how many of
your friends whom you have not seen for many years have changed, even to the extent that you have nothing in common anymore. It is
equally true, on the other hand, that you often run into old friends that have basically not changed, who are “just the same old
Lerato/Francois”.
⚫ A good guideline is that past and present behaviour is the best predictor of future behaviour – but this does not
imply that it is fully reliable. As mentioned before, human behaviour is just too complex and unique to be represented in a rigid formula.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 3
, PASSIVE OR ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT?
Monday, 14 June 2021 22:19
⚫ The issue here is whether children have no part in their development and therefore are at the mercy of their
environment or whether they can play an active role in their own development.
To use John Locke’s blank slate theory as an illustration:
is it only the environment that writes on the slate or does the child also contribute and can he or she even delete what the environment
has written?
⚫ The present situation is that most psychologists agree that although the influence of the environment cannot be denied, children also
take an active part in their own development.
⚫ Take for instance how people’s responses (an important environmental factor in the development of the child) may differ towards an
obnoxious versus a pleasant child.
⚫ Moreover, children who, regardless of continuous efforts by their parents and the school, do not do their schoolwork, to a large extent
shape their own future, as do children who, often even without encouragement and role models, adhere to the expectations and norms of
society and achieve success.
⚫ Most psychologists acknowledge that the unique way in which children cognitively and emotionally interpret and process their
experiences have a significant influence on their development.
⚫ However, psychologists are still debating especially two questions in this regard:
Firstly, to what degree are children able to shape their own development?
Secondly, which factors are responsible for a child’s unique interpretation and processing of his or
her world?
Further research is needed to provide answers to these questions.
UNIT 1 - Basic concepts of child and adolesent dev Page 4
