NEWEST 2026/2027 BIOD 331 / BIOD331 FINAL EXAM –
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (2025/2026 UPDATE) | 130 QUESTIONS &
ANSWERS
CORE DOMAINS
Foundations of Pathophysiology and Cellular Adaptation
Neoplasia and Cancer Biology
Immunity, Inflammation, and Hypersensitivity
Hematology and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology
Respiratory and Neurological Pathophysiology
Gastrointestinal, Renal, and Endocrine Pathophysiology
INTRODUCTION
This comprehensive examination is designed to assess mastery of advanced pathophysiology
concepts for the BIOD 331 / NURS 231 Pathophysiology Final Exam at Portage Learning. The
exam covers all major topics from Modules 1 through 10, including cellular adaptation and
injury, neoplasia, immunity, hypersensitivity reactions, cardiovascular and respiratory disorders,
neurological conditions, gastrointestinal and renal pathophysiology, and endocrine and
musculoskeletal disorders. Questions are presented in multiple formats including multiple-
choice, true/false, and matching questions with detailed rationales for verification. Updated for
the 2025/2026 academic year, this assessment prepares nursing and health science students for
the cumulative final proctored exam.
SECTION ONE: FOUNDATIONS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (Questions 1-25)
QUESTION 1
True or False: Hypertrophy can occur under normal and pathological conditions.
A) True
B) False
Correct answer: A
RATIONALE: Hypertrophy refers to the increase in size of cells and consequently the
affected organ. It can be physiologic, such as muscle growth from exercise, or pathologic, as in
cardiac hypertrophy from hypertension . This is a fundamental concept in cellular adaptation.
,QUESTION 2
Match the definitions:
A) Hyperplasia
B) Hypertrophy
C) Metaplasia
D) Dysplasia
I) Increase in cell size
II) Increase in cell number
III) Replacement of one cell type by another
IV) Disordered cellular growth
Correct answers: A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV
RATIONALE: Hyperplasia is an increase in cell number, hypertrophy is an increase in cell
size, metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type with another, and dysplasia is disordered
cellular growth with cellular atypia . These are the four primary types of cellular adaptation.
QUESTION 3
True or False: Barrett esophagus is an example of dysplasia.
A) True
B) False
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Barrett esophagus is characterized by the replacement of the normal
squamous epithelium of the esophagus with columnar epithelium, which is a classic example of
metaplasia, not dysplasia . Dysplasia denotes disordered growth with cellular atypia.
QUESTION 4
What are important factors when deciding upon a diagnosis? (Select all that apply)
A) Age
B) Race
C) Gender
D) Lifestyle
, Correct answers: A, B, C, D
RATIONALE: Disease prevalence and presentation can vary with age, race, gender, and
lifestyle, making these factors critical to accurate diagnosis . Clinicians must consider these
demographic and behavioral factors when formulating a differential diagnosis.
QUESTION 5
Define tertiary prevention and give an example.
A) Prevention of initial disease occurrence
B) Early detection and treatment of disease
C) Reducing complications after disease diagnosis
D) Reversing disease progression
Correct answer: C
RATIONALE: Tertiary prevention aims to reduce complications or deterioration after a
disease diagnosis has been made, often involving clinical interventions . An example is the
administration of beta-blockers post-myocardial infarction to prevent recurrent events .
QUESTION 6
Explain apoptosis and why it is necessary.
A) Programmed cell death that eliminates harmful cells
B) Unregulated cell death due to injury
C) Cell death due to oxygen deprivation
D) Cell death due to toxic exposure
Correct answer: A
RATIONALE: Apoptosis is programmed cell death, essential for maintaining tissue
homeostasis by removing unnecessary or potentially harmful cells . It prevents accumulation of
defective cells, aiding in normal development and physiological cell turnover.
QUESTION 7
Explain what necrosis is and give an example of one type of necrosis.
A) Programmed cell death; example: intestinal epithelial shedding
B) Unregulated cell death in living tissue; example: coagulative necrosis from myocardial
, infarction
C) Cell death due to atrophy; example: muscle wasting
D) Cell death due to apoptosis; example: embryonic development
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Necrosis refers to unregulated cell death in living tissue, often resulting from
injury . Coagulative necrosis most commonly occurs in the heart after an ischemic event
(myocardial infarction), where the architecture of dead tissue is preserved for some days .
QUESTION 8
What term means "cell eating" and engulfs and then kills microorganisms or other particulate
matter?
A) Pinocytosis
B) Phagocytosis
C) Exocytosis
D) Endocytosis
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Phagocytosis is the process by which cells engulf and destroy microorganisms
or other particulate matter . It is essential to immune defense and is performed by cells such as
macrophages and neutrophils.
QUESTION 9
What is diffusion of water called?
A) Active transport
B) Osmosis
C) Facilitated diffusion
D) Pinocytosis
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
from a region of lower solute concentration to one of higher concentration, vital for cellular
hydration and homeostasis .
QUESTION 10
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (2025/2026 UPDATE) | 130 QUESTIONS &
ANSWERS
CORE DOMAINS
Foundations of Pathophysiology and Cellular Adaptation
Neoplasia and Cancer Biology
Immunity, Inflammation, and Hypersensitivity
Hematology and Cardiovascular Pathophysiology
Respiratory and Neurological Pathophysiology
Gastrointestinal, Renal, and Endocrine Pathophysiology
INTRODUCTION
This comprehensive examination is designed to assess mastery of advanced pathophysiology
concepts for the BIOD 331 / NURS 231 Pathophysiology Final Exam at Portage Learning. The
exam covers all major topics from Modules 1 through 10, including cellular adaptation and
injury, neoplasia, immunity, hypersensitivity reactions, cardiovascular and respiratory disorders,
neurological conditions, gastrointestinal and renal pathophysiology, and endocrine and
musculoskeletal disorders. Questions are presented in multiple formats including multiple-
choice, true/false, and matching questions with detailed rationales for verification. Updated for
the 2025/2026 academic year, this assessment prepares nursing and health science students for
the cumulative final proctored exam.
SECTION ONE: FOUNDATIONS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (Questions 1-25)
QUESTION 1
True or False: Hypertrophy can occur under normal and pathological conditions.
A) True
B) False
Correct answer: A
RATIONALE: Hypertrophy refers to the increase in size of cells and consequently the
affected organ. It can be physiologic, such as muscle growth from exercise, or pathologic, as in
cardiac hypertrophy from hypertension . This is a fundamental concept in cellular adaptation.
,QUESTION 2
Match the definitions:
A) Hyperplasia
B) Hypertrophy
C) Metaplasia
D) Dysplasia
I) Increase in cell size
II) Increase in cell number
III) Replacement of one cell type by another
IV) Disordered cellular growth
Correct answers: A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV
RATIONALE: Hyperplasia is an increase in cell number, hypertrophy is an increase in cell
size, metaplasia is the replacement of one cell type with another, and dysplasia is disordered
cellular growth with cellular atypia . These are the four primary types of cellular adaptation.
QUESTION 3
True or False: Barrett esophagus is an example of dysplasia.
A) True
B) False
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Barrett esophagus is characterized by the replacement of the normal
squamous epithelium of the esophagus with columnar epithelium, which is a classic example of
metaplasia, not dysplasia . Dysplasia denotes disordered growth with cellular atypia.
QUESTION 4
What are important factors when deciding upon a diagnosis? (Select all that apply)
A) Age
B) Race
C) Gender
D) Lifestyle
, Correct answers: A, B, C, D
RATIONALE: Disease prevalence and presentation can vary with age, race, gender, and
lifestyle, making these factors critical to accurate diagnosis . Clinicians must consider these
demographic and behavioral factors when formulating a differential diagnosis.
QUESTION 5
Define tertiary prevention and give an example.
A) Prevention of initial disease occurrence
B) Early detection and treatment of disease
C) Reducing complications after disease diagnosis
D) Reversing disease progression
Correct answer: C
RATIONALE: Tertiary prevention aims to reduce complications or deterioration after a
disease diagnosis has been made, often involving clinical interventions . An example is the
administration of beta-blockers post-myocardial infarction to prevent recurrent events .
QUESTION 6
Explain apoptosis and why it is necessary.
A) Programmed cell death that eliminates harmful cells
B) Unregulated cell death due to injury
C) Cell death due to oxygen deprivation
D) Cell death due to toxic exposure
Correct answer: A
RATIONALE: Apoptosis is programmed cell death, essential for maintaining tissue
homeostasis by removing unnecessary or potentially harmful cells . It prevents accumulation of
defective cells, aiding in normal development and physiological cell turnover.
QUESTION 7
Explain what necrosis is and give an example of one type of necrosis.
A) Programmed cell death; example: intestinal epithelial shedding
B) Unregulated cell death in living tissue; example: coagulative necrosis from myocardial
, infarction
C) Cell death due to atrophy; example: muscle wasting
D) Cell death due to apoptosis; example: embryonic development
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Necrosis refers to unregulated cell death in living tissue, often resulting from
injury . Coagulative necrosis most commonly occurs in the heart after an ischemic event
(myocardial infarction), where the architecture of dead tissue is preserved for some days .
QUESTION 8
What term means "cell eating" and engulfs and then kills microorganisms or other particulate
matter?
A) Pinocytosis
B) Phagocytosis
C) Exocytosis
D) Endocytosis
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Phagocytosis is the process by which cells engulf and destroy microorganisms
or other particulate matter . It is essential to immune defense and is performed by cells such as
macrophages and neutrophils.
QUESTION 9
What is diffusion of water called?
A) Active transport
B) Osmosis
C) Facilitated diffusion
D) Pinocytosis
Correct answer: B
RATIONALE: Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane
from a region of lower solute concentration to one of higher concentration, vital for cellular
hydration and homeostasis .
QUESTION 10
