UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
College of Human Sciences | Department of Corrections Management
⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄⋄
PEN3705: Youth in Corrections
Assignment 2 | Semester 2, 2026
⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄⋄
PEN3705
Module Code:
Youth in Corrections
Module Name:
Gangsterism, the CRC, youth rehabilitation
Essay Topic: programmes, restorative conferencing,
assessment, unit management and the
child justice policy cycle
Assignment 2
Assignment Number:
Semester 2, 2026
Semester:
September 2026
Due Date:
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for PEN3705, UNISA 2026
,UNISA | PEN3705 Youth Corrections: Assessment, Gangsterism & Restorative Conferencing
Question 1: Gangsterism in Correctional Centres and its Physical Signs
The Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998 charges the Department of Correctional Services
(DCS) with the custody, rehabilitation and social reintegration of sentenced offenders, and
requires every inmate to submit to the lawful authority of correctional officials from the mo-
ment of admission.1 Gangsterism undermines this mandate directly, since it introduces a
parallel authority structure inside correctional centres that competes with official control and
actively obstructs rehabilitation.
1.1 The Nature and Extent of Gangsterism in Correctional Centres
Gangsterism in a correctional context refers to organised, hierarchically structured groups of
offenders who operate according to their own codes, rituals and lines of authority, and who
use coercion, extortion and violence to control resources, territory and other inmates (Nel,
2017:14). South Africa’s prison gang system is dominated historically by the so-called Number
gangs, the 26s, 27s and 28s, each of which claims a distinct function within the gang hierar-
chy: the 26s are associated with the accumulation and smuggling of money and contraband,
the 27s enforce gang law and settle disputes through violence, and the 28s claim territory
over sexual relationships and the protection of gang interests (Nel, 2017:21). Gangsterism
is not confined to adult male facilities; it also infiltrates youth and juvenile sections, where
younger, more vulnerable offenders are recruited, initiated and used to run risks on behalf of
senior members (CGE, 2024:9).
The persistence of gangsterism is linked to structural conditions rather than to individual
pathology alone. Overcrowding, insufficient supervision, gaps in the classification and sepa-
ration of offenders, and the limited implementation of rehabilitation programming all create
the space in which gangs recruit and consolidate power (Nel, 2017:118). Gang membership
offers new admissions a sense of protection, belonging and status that the institution itself
often fails to provide, which is precisely why assessment at admission, and continuous case
management thereafter, is treated as a frontline defence against gang recruitment rather than
a purely administrative formality.
1
Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998, s 2 read with s 4.
Page 2 of 19
, UNISA | PEN3705 Youth Corrections: Assessment, Gangsterism & Restorative Conferencing
1.2 Physical Signs of Gangsterism
Correctional officials are trained to recognise a cluster of physical and behavioural indicators
that, taken together, point to gang involvement. No single sign is conclusive on its own, but
their co-occurrence raises the index of suspicion considerably.
• Tattoos and hand-poked markings. Gang tattoos are the most visible and most heavily
coded sign of affiliation. Number-gang tattoos frequently incorporate the digits 26, 27 or
28, or symbols associated with each faction, such as stars, crossed weapons or currency
imagery, and are typically applied by hand using improvised, unsterile equipment, which
independently raises the risk of bloodborne infection among the offender population (dos
Santos et al., 2014:2).
• Scarring and self-inflicted marks. Ritual scarring, branding and other permanent body
modifications are sometimes used as markers of rank or of a completed initiation task,
distinguishing full members from prospects.
• Hand signs and coded gestures. Gang members communicate rank, instructions and
warnings through hand signals and body language that are unintelligible to outsiders but
instantly legible to other members, allowing coordination even under close supervision
(Studocu, 2024).
• Distinctive dress and colour codes. Where uniform regulations allow any variation, such
as the rolling of sleeves, the positioning of a belt, or the use of particular colours on per-
mitted personal items, these small deviations often function as visible rank or affiliation
markers.
• Graffiti and territorial marking. Gang symbols scratched or written on cell walls, bedding
or communal areas mark territory and signal control over a section of the facility.
• Patterns of violence, intimidation and extortion. Physical injuries consistent with assault,
visible bullying of new admissions, and the forced surrender of food, toiletries or other
property are behavioural signs that frequently accompany the physical markers above.
Correctional officials use these indicators, combined with information obtained through ad-
mission assessment and ongoing intelligence gathering, to inform the classification and
separation of offenders, the allocation of cells, and referral to targeted gang-management or
rehabilitation interventions (Nel, 2017:126). The consistent difficulty, however, is that gang-
affiliated offenders are frequently enrolled on paper for rehabilitation programmes that are
not meaningfully delivered in practice, which allows gang structures to persist even where
Page 3 of 19
College of Human Sciences | Department of Corrections Management
⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄⋄
PEN3705: Youth in Corrections
Assignment 2 | Semester 2, 2026
⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄ ⋄⋄
PEN3705
Module Code:
Youth in Corrections
Module Name:
Gangsterism, the CRC, youth rehabilitation
Essay Topic: programmes, restorative conferencing,
assessment, unit management and the
child justice policy cycle
Assignment 2
Assignment Number:
Semester 2, 2026
Semester:
September 2026
Due Date:
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for PEN3705, UNISA 2026
,UNISA | PEN3705 Youth Corrections: Assessment, Gangsterism & Restorative Conferencing
Question 1: Gangsterism in Correctional Centres and its Physical Signs
The Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998 charges the Department of Correctional Services
(DCS) with the custody, rehabilitation and social reintegration of sentenced offenders, and
requires every inmate to submit to the lawful authority of correctional officials from the mo-
ment of admission.1 Gangsterism undermines this mandate directly, since it introduces a
parallel authority structure inside correctional centres that competes with official control and
actively obstructs rehabilitation.
1.1 The Nature and Extent of Gangsterism in Correctional Centres
Gangsterism in a correctional context refers to organised, hierarchically structured groups of
offenders who operate according to their own codes, rituals and lines of authority, and who
use coercion, extortion and violence to control resources, territory and other inmates (Nel,
2017:14). South Africa’s prison gang system is dominated historically by the so-called Number
gangs, the 26s, 27s and 28s, each of which claims a distinct function within the gang hierar-
chy: the 26s are associated with the accumulation and smuggling of money and contraband,
the 27s enforce gang law and settle disputes through violence, and the 28s claim territory
over sexual relationships and the protection of gang interests (Nel, 2017:21). Gangsterism
is not confined to adult male facilities; it also infiltrates youth and juvenile sections, where
younger, more vulnerable offenders are recruited, initiated and used to run risks on behalf of
senior members (CGE, 2024:9).
The persistence of gangsterism is linked to structural conditions rather than to individual
pathology alone. Overcrowding, insufficient supervision, gaps in the classification and sepa-
ration of offenders, and the limited implementation of rehabilitation programming all create
the space in which gangs recruit and consolidate power (Nel, 2017:118). Gang membership
offers new admissions a sense of protection, belonging and status that the institution itself
often fails to provide, which is precisely why assessment at admission, and continuous case
management thereafter, is treated as a frontline defence against gang recruitment rather than
a purely administrative formality.
1
Correctional Services Act 111 of 1998, s 2 read with s 4.
Page 2 of 19
, UNISA | PEN3705 Youth Corrections: Assessment, Gangsterism & Restorative Conferencing
1.2 Physical Signs of Gangsterism
Correctional officials are trained to recognise a cluster of physical and behavioural indicators
that, taken together, point to gang involvement. No single sign is conclusive on its own, but
their co-occurrence raises the index of suspicion considerably.
• Tattoos and hand-poked markings. Gang tattoos are the most visible and most heavily
coded sign of affiliation. Number-gang tattoos frequently incorporate the digits 26, 27 or
28, or symbols associated with each faction, such as stars, crossed weapons or currency
imagery, and are typically applied by hand using improvised, unsterile equipment, which
independently raises the risk of bloodborne infection among the offender population (dos
Santos et al., 2014:2).
• Scarring and self-inflicted marks. Ritual scarring, branding and other permanent body
modifications are sometimes used as markers of rank or of a completed initiation task,
distinguishing full members from prospects.
• Hand signs and coded gestures. Gang members communicate rank, instructions and
warnings through hand signals and body language that are unintelligible to outsiders but
instantly legible to other members, allowing coordination even under close supervision
(Studocu, 2024).
• Distinctive dress and colour codes. Where uniform regulations allow any variation, such
as the rolling of sleeves, the positioning of a belt, or the use of particular colours on per-
mitted personal items, these small deviations often function as visible rank or affiliation
markers.
• Graffiti and territorial marking. Gang symbols scratched or written on cell walls, bedding
or communal areas mark territory and signal control over a section of the facility.
• Patterns of violence, intimidation and extortion. Physical injuries consistent with assault,
visible bullying of new admissions, and the forced surrender of food, toiletries or other
property are behavioural signs that frequently accompany the physical markers above.
Correctional officials use these indicators, combined with information obtained through ad-
mission assessment and ongoing intelligence gathering, to inform the classification and
separation of offenders, the allocation of cells, and referral to targeted gang-management or
rehabilitation interventions (Nel, 2017:126). The consistent difficulty, however, is that gang-
affiliated offenders are frequently enrolled on paper for rehabilitation programmes that are
not meaningfully delivered in practice, which allows gang structures to persist even where
Page 3 of 19
