PHGY 216 – Midterm Exam Questions
with All Solved Solutions 2026 Updated.
Describe how blood glucose is regulated with hormones - Answer o Insulin and glucagon
§ Increased glucagon secretion -> breakdown glycogen stores to produce glucose
§ Increasing insulin secretion -> increases rate @ which glucose is removed from the circulation
Describe the general functions of the endocrine system - Answer o Circulation and digestion
o Adaptive stress response
o Growth and development
o Regulation of metabolism and H2O/electrolyte balance
o Reproduction
o Red blood cell production
Define a hormone and describe what makes hormones different from other secretions - Answer
o Come from endocrine tissues
o They are chemical substances that are secreted directly into the blood @ low quantities and
exert a physiological effect @ a distant target tissue
What are the differences b/w neurotransmitters and hormones?
(belong to? transmitted across/transported by? produced by? travels?) - Answer
Neurotransmitters
§ Belong to the nervous system
§ Transmitted across a synaptic cleft
§ Produced by neurons
§ Travel short distances
Hormones
§ Belong to the endocrine system
§ Transported by the blood
§ Produced by endocrine glands
§ Travel long distances
What are the different types of hormones - Answer Hydrophilic (water loving)
- Highly water soluble and have low lipid solubility
,- Can be found unbound to carrier molecules within the plasma
- They can be peptide hormones or amines
*EXCEPTION: thyroid hormones are not hydrophilic
- Catecholamines are also both free and bound to carrier molecules
- Peptide hormones are dissolved in plasma
- Steroid and thyroid hormones are bound to carrier molecules/proteins
Hydrophobic (lipid loving)
- Highly soluble in lipids and poorly soluble in water
- Generally, require carrier molecules for transport throughout the body
- Includes amine thyroid hormones and steroid hormones
How is a peptide hormone synthesized? - Answer 1. Synthesis: Preprohormones (large
precursor proteins) are synthesized by the ER ribosomes
2. Packing: Preprohormones are processed into active hormones and packaged into vesicles as
they travel through ER and Golgi
3. Storage: Hormone-containing secretory vesicles can be stored until the cell receives the
appropriate signal
4. Secretion: Appropriate signal initiates exocytosis of the vesicles and the hormones are
released into the blood
Describe the structure and function of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis - Answer o
Hypothalamus controls this hormone release in a different manner for each lobe
Posterior pituitary lobe
§ Connected to hypothalamus by a neural pathway
§ Has 2 clusters of neurons: supraoptic nucleus & paraventricular nucleus
§ Axons project down the pituitary stalk and terminate on blood vessels in the posterior
pituitary
Anterior pituitary lobe
§ Connected by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
§ Hypothalamus secretes hormones into this portal system and are carried directly to the
anterior pituitary where they inhibit or promote the release of anterior pituitary hormones
Differentiate b/w the hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary - Answer Posterior
- Vasopressin (ADH)
, - Oxytocin
Anterior
- Growth hormone (GH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Prolactin
Function of vasopressin (ADH) - Answer § Enhances water retention by the kidneys
§ Causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle
Function of oxytocin - Answer § Stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle cells during
childbirth
§ Promotes milk ejection during breastfeeding
Function of GH - Answer § Regulates body growth and involved in metabolism
Function of ACTH - Answer § Stimulates secretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex
Function of LH - Answer Females: Responsible for ovulation and formation of the corpus
luteum, also secretion of estrogen and progesterone from ovaries
Males: stimulates release of testosterone from the interstitial cells of Leydig
Function of FSH - Answer Females: stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles and
promotes secretion of estrogen by the ovaries
Males: stimulates sperm production
Function of TSH - Answer § Stimulates the release of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland
Function of prolactin - Answer Females: enhances breast development and milk production
Males: purpose is not clear
with All Solved Solutions 2026 Updated.
Describe how blood glucose is regulated with hormones - Answer o Insulin and glucagon
§ Increased glucagon secretion -> breakdown glycogen stores to produce glucose
§ Increasing insulin secretion -> increases rate @ which glucose is removed from the circulation
Describe the general functions of the endocrine system - Answer o Circulation and digestion
o Adaptive stress response
o Growth and development
o Regulation of metabolism and H2O/electrolyte balance
o Reproduction
o Red blood cell production
Define a hormone and describe what makes hormones different from other secretions - Answer
o Come from endocrine tissues
o They are chemical substances that are secreted directly into the blood @ low quantities and
exert a physiological effect @ a distant target tissue
What are the differences b/w neurotransmitters and hormones?
(belong to? transmitted across/transported by? produced by? travels?) - Answer
Neurotransmitters
§ Belong to the nervous system
§ Transmitted across a synaptic cleft
§ Produced by neurons
§ Travel short distances
Hormones
§ Belong to the endocrine system
§ Transported by the blood
§ Produced by endocrine glands
§ Travel long distances
What are the different types of hormones - Answer Hydrophilic (water loving)
- Highly water soluble and have low lipid solubility
,- Can be found unbound to carrier molecules within the plasma
- They can be peptide hormones or amines
*EXCEPTION: thyroid hormones are not hydrophilic
- Catecholamines are also both free and bound to carrier molecules
- Peptide hormones are dissolved in plasma
- Steroid and thyroid hormones are bound to carrier molecules/proteins
Hydrophobic (lipid loving)
- Highly soluble in lipids and poorly soluble in water
- Generally, require carrier molecules for transport throughout the body
- Includes amine thyroid hormones and steroid hormones
How is a peptide hormone synthesized? - Answer 1. Synthesis: Preprohormones (large
precursor proteins) are synthesized by the ER ribosomes
2. Packing: Preprohormones are processed into active hormones and packaged into vesicles as
they travel through ER and Golgi
3. Storage: Hormone-containing secretory vesicles can be stored until the cell receives the
appropriate signal
4. Secretion: Appropriate signal initiates exocytosis of the vesicles and the hormones are
released into the blood
Describe the structure and function of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis - Answer o
Hypothalamus controls this hormone release in a different manner for each lobe
Posterior pituitary lobe
§ Connected to hypothalamus by a neural pathway
§ Has 2 clusters of neurons: supraoptic nucleus & paraventricular nucleus
§ Axons project down the pituitary stalk and terminate on blood vessels in the posterior
pituitary
Anterior pituitary lobe
§ Connected by the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system
§ Hypothalamus secretes hormones into this portal system and are carried directly to the
anterior pituitary where they inhibit or promote the release of anterior pituitary hormones
Differentiate b/w the hormones of the anterior and posterior pituitary - Answer Posterior
- Vasopressin (ADH)
, - Oxytocin
Anterior
- Growth hormone (GH)
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Prolactin
Function of vasopressin (ADH) - Answer § Enhances water retention by the kidneys
§ Causes contraction of arteriolar smooth muscle
Function of oxytocin - Answer § Stimulates contraction of uterine smooth muscle cells during
childbirth
§ Promotes milk ejection during breastfeeding
Function of GH - Answer § Regulates body growth and involved in metabolism
Function of ACTH - Answer § Stimulates secretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex
Function of LH - Answer Females: Responsible for ovulation and formation of the corpus
luteum, also secretion of estrogen and progesterone from ovaries
Males: stimulates release of testosterone from the interstitial cells of Leydig
Function of FSH - Answer Females: stimulates growth and development of ovarian follicles and
promotes secretion of estrogen by the ovaries
Males: stimulates sperm production
Function of TSH - Answer § Stimulates the release of thyroid hormones from thyroid gland
Function of prolactin - Answer Females: enhances breast development and milk production
Males: purpose is not clear
