NUR 2063 ESSENTIALS OF PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
REVISION HANDBOOK 2026 IMMUNE
RESPONSE AND ORGAN SYSTEM DISORDERS
◉ Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome
Answer: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
◉ Explain alarm stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: Where the sympathetic nervous system is activated due to
stress. Fight or Flight responses are activated and energy is given off
by the HPA axis to flee or fight the danger ahead. Blood must be
redirected to vital organs in this stage to give the organs energy to
work.
◉ Explain Resistance stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: the activity of the Parasympathetic Nervous system and the
endocrine system to return the body to homeostasis. The body
should ultimately adapt to the stressor.
◉ Explain the exhaustion stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: Occurs when the stressor is not removed or overcome in
the body. The body can no longer return to homeostasis after
,prolonged exposure to stressor. It causes the body to be depleted
and damaged that can lead to disease or death.
◉ What complications can occur if stressors are not resolved from
general adaptation syndrome?
Answer: disease can occur physically and mentally, such as anxiety,
depression, headaches, insomnia, infection, and heart disease.
◉ Name the hormones released during alarm stage of general
adaptation syndrome
Answer: Corticotrophin releasing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic
hormone, catecholamines( norepinephrine and epinephrine) and
cortisol
◉ Explain the Role of corticotrophin releasing hormone in alarm
stage
Answer: activates the sympathetic nervous system and
adrenocorticotropic hormone.
◉ Explain the role of norepinephrine during alarm stage
Answer: helps to slow down certain organs such as the GI and GU
systems to prepare the body for fight or flight.
◉ Explain the role of epinephrine during alarm stage
,Answer: Stimulates the fight or flight response by increasing heart
rate, bronchodilation of the lungs to increase respirations and
amount of air let in, dilates pupils to let more light in, stimulates
more glucose to be released.
◉ Explain the role of cortisol during alarm stage
Answer: released by ACTH reaching the adrenal cortex, this allows
for more energy creation to increase glucose and to reduce
inflammation. Suppresses the immune system.
◉ Explain the symptoms of a sympathetic nervous system response
Answer: Pupils dilate, salivation inhibited, increase in HR,
bronchodilation of airway, increased respirations, glucose release,
inhibit GI/GU.
◉ Explain the symptoms of a parasympathetic nervous system
response
Answer: Pupils constrict, salivation occurs, decreased HR,
bronchoconstriction, decreased respiration, GI/GU systems resume
action.
◉ role of nucleus
Answer: control center of the cell, where DNA and genes are stored,
produces mRNA to help build body proteins. Can have 1 or more
(liver cells), or none (RBCs).
, ◉ role of mitochondria
Answer: Powerhouse of the cell. Provides energy in ATP, and has its
own set of DNA.
◉ Role of ribosome
Answer: produces RNA to produce proteins through transcriptions
of DNA and translation of RNA into a protein. Can be floating or
attached to the Rough ER.
◉ Role of lysosomes
Answer: helps breakdown and digest dead cells, organelles, or
tissues.
◉ Role of rough ER
Answer: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Has
ribosomes attached to it and helps produce proteins for the cell
membranes.
◉ role of smooth ER
Answer: ribosomes not attached to smooth ER, helps in the Liver
and kidney cells to detoxify, lipid metabolism, synthesis of
hormones, and calcium storage.
REVISION HANDBOOK 2026 IMMUNE
RESPONSE AND ORGAN SYSTEM DISORDERS
◉ Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome
Answer: alarm, resistance, exhaustion
◉ Explain alarm stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: Where the sympathetic nervous system is activated due to
stress. Fight or Flight responses are activated and energy is given off
by the HPA axis to flee or fight the danger ahead. Blood must be
redirected to vital organs in this stage to give the organs energy to
work.
◉ Explain Resistance stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: the activity of the Parasympathetic Nervous system and the
endocrine system to return the body to homeostasis. The body
should ultimately adapt to the stressor.
◉ Explain the exhaustion stage of general adaptation syndrome
Answer: Occurs when the stressor is not removed or overcome in
the body. The body can no longer return to homeostasis after
,prolonged exposure to stressor. It causes the body to be depleted
and damaged that can lead to disease or death.
◉ What complications can occur if stressors are not resolved from
general adaptation syndrome?
Answer: disease can occur physically and mentally, such as anxiety,
depression, headaches, insomnia, infection, and heart disease.
◉ Name the hormones released during alarm stage of general
adaptation syndrome
Answer: Corticotrophin releasing hormone, adrenocorticotrophic
hormone, catecholamines( norepinephrine and epinephrine) and
cortisol
◉ Explain the Role of corticotrophin releasing hormone in alarm
stage
Answer: activates the sympathetic nervous system and
adrenocorticotropic hormone.
◉ Explain the role of norepinephrine during alarm stage
Answer: helps to slow down certain organs such as the GI and GU
systems to prepare the body for fight or flight.
◉ Explain the role of epinephrine during alarm stage
,Answer: Stimulates the fight or flight response by increasing heart
rate, bronchodilation of the lungs to increase respirations and
amount of air let in, dilates pupils to let more light in, stimulates
more glucose to be released.
◉ Explain the role of cortisol during alarm stage
Answer: released by ACTH reaching the adrenal cortex, this allows
for more energy creation to increase glucose and to reduce
inflammation. Suppresses the immune system.
◉ Explain the symptoms of a sympathetic nervous system response
Answer: Pupils dilate, salivation inhibited, increase in HR,
bronchodilation of airway, increased respirations, glucose release,
inhibit GI/GU.
◉ Explain the symptoms of a parasympathetic nervous system
response
Answer: Pupils constrict, salivation occurs, decreased HR,
bronchoconstriction, decreased respiration, GI/GU systems resume
action.
◉ role of nucleus
Answer: control center of the cell, where DNA and genes are stored,
produces mRNA to help build body proteins. Can have 1 or more
(liver cells), or none (RBCs).
, ◉ role of mitochondria
Answer: Powerhouse of the cell. Provides energy in ATP, and has its
own set of DNA.
◉ Role of ribosome
Answer: produces RNA to produce proteins through transcriptions
of DNA and translation of RNA into a protein. Can be floating or
attached to the Rough ER.
◉ Role of lysosomes
Answer: helps breakdown and digest dead cells, organelles, or
tissues.
◉ Role of rough ER
Answer: folded membranes that move proteins around the cell. Has
ribosomes attached to it and helps produce proteins for the cell
membranes.
◉ role of smooth ER
Answer: ribosomes not attached to smooth ER, helps in the Liver
and kidney cells to detoxify, lipid metabolism, synthesis of
hormones, and calcium storage.
