Issues and Debates:
Gender and Culture in Psychology – Gender Bias:
Universality and Bias:
Universality; any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being
applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and
culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology
Because psychologist are regular people with beliefs and values, bias may be an
inevitable aspect of the research process, despite psychologists saying they are
objective and value-free
o This undermines any claim to universality
Gender Bias:
Alpha Bias:
Psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduring differences between
men and women.
These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue
females
An example is Freud’s psychodynamic approach as he theorised the Oedipus and
Electra complex – suggesting there is a difference between men and women
Beta Bias:
Theories that ignore or minimise differences between men and women have beta
bias
This often occurs when female participants aren’t included in the research and then
the results are applied equally to both sexes
An example is Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment as this only included male
participants but the findings on obedience were generalised to both men and
women
Androcentrism:
A possible consequence of beta bias is androcentrism
o Because, if our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ is taken from all-
male research, then any behaviour that deviates from this is likely to be seen
as ‘abnormal’
This leads to female behaviour sometimes being pathologized – its taken as a sign of
psychological instability/ disorder
Evaluation:
Reflexivity; Many researchers nowadays are starting to recognise the effect of their
own assumptions can have on their research. Rather than seeing bias as a problem
that may threaten their objectivity, they embrace it as a crucial aspect of the
research process in general. Dambrin and Lambert included reflection in their
, research on how their gender-related experiences influenced their reading of events
in their study of the lack of women in executive positions. Reflexivity then may lead
to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping psychological research
in the future
Implications of Gender Bias; Gender-biased research can create misleading
assumptions about female behaviour and may validate discriminatory practises. It
may provide a ‘scientific’ justification to deny women opportunities in life as if
women set the standard for normalcy ‘it becomes normal for women to feel
abnormal’ (Carol Tarvis). Gender bias is not only a methodological problem but
could also have damaging consequences that affects the lives/ prospects of real
women
Sexism with the Research Process; Because more men than women are appointed in
positions of senior research, female concerns may not be reflected in research
questions asked. Male researchers are more likely to have their work published (and
therefore studies that find evidence of gender differences are more likely to be
published than those that don’t). Female participants are also likely to be placed
under a male researcher who has the power to label them as irrational or unable to
complete complex tasks
Essentialism; Many gender differences are based on an essentialist perspective; that
the gender difference is ‘fixed’ in nature. Walkerdine reports of how 1930s
‘scientific’ research revealed how if women attended university their ovaries would
shrivel up and they’d be unable to give birth. These ‘facts’ are often politically
motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘truth’ which often creates a ‘double-
standard’ in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female
perspective.
Gender and Culture in Psychology – Culture Bias:
In 1992, 64% of the world’s psychology researchers were American and in Baron
and Byrne’s 1991 textbook, 94% of the studies were conducted in North America
Suggests that, as well as being a male-dominated discipline, psychology is the study
of white Americans only
Despite this, many psychologists may claim to have found out ‘universal facts’ about
human behaviour
Cultural bias; if the standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the view
of one culture, then any cultural differences that deviate from this normal will be
seen as ‘abnormal or unusual’
Universality and Bias:
Many argue that while psychology may claim to have found truths that apply to
people all over the world, findings from studies can only be applied to those studied
as part of research
Gender and Culture in Psychology – Gender Bias:
Universality and Bias:
Universality; any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being
applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and
culture bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology
Because psychologist are regular people with beliefs and values, bias may be an
inevitable aspect of the research process, despite psychologists saying they are
objective and value-free
o This undermines any claim to universality
Gender Bias:
Alpha Bias:
Psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduring differences between
men and women.
These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue
females
An example is Freud’s psychodynamic approach as he theorised the Oedipus and
Electra complex – suggesting there is a difference between men and women
Beta Bias:
Theories that ignore or minimise differences between men and women have beta
bias
This often occurs when female participants aren’t included in the research and then
the results are applied equally to both sexes
An example is Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment as this only included male
participants but the findings on obedience were generalised to both men and
women
Androcentrism:
A possible consequence of beta bias is androcentrism
o Because, if our understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ is taken from all-
male research, then any behaviour that deviates from this is likely to be seen
as ‘abnormal’
This leads to female behaviour sometimes being pathologized – its taken as a sign of
psychological instability/ disorder
Evaluation:
Reflexivity; Many researchers nowadays are starting to recognise the effect of their
own assumptions can have on their research. Rather than seeing bias as a problem
that may threaten their objectivity, they embrace it as a crucial aspect of the
research process in general. Dambrin and Lambert included reflection in their
, research on how their gender-related experiences influenced their reading of events
in their study of the lack of women in executive positions. Reflexivity then may lead
to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping psychological research
in the future
Implications of Gender Bias; Gender-biased research can create misleading
assumptions about female behaviour and may validate discriminatory practises. It
may provide a ‘scientific’ justification to deny women opportunities in life as if
women set the standard for normalcy ‘it becomes normal for women to feel
abnormal’ (Carol Tarvis). Gender bias is not only a methodological problem but
could also have damaging consequences that affects the lives/ prospects of real
women
Sexism with the Research Process; Because more men than women are appointed in
positions of senior research, female concerns may not be reflected in research
questions asked. Male researchers are more likely to have their work published (and
therefore studies that find evidence of gender differences are more likely to be
published than those that don’t). Female participants are also likely to be placed
under a male researcher who has the power to label them as irrational or unable to
complete complex tasks
Essentialism; Many gender differences are based on an essentialist perspective; that
the gender difference is ‘fixed’ in nature. Walkerdine reports of how 1930s
‘scientific’ research revealed how if women attended university their ovaries would
shrivel up and they’d be unable to give birth. These ‘facts’ are often politically
motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘truth’ which often creates a ‘double-
standard’ in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female
perspective.
Gender and Culture in Psychology – Culture Bias:
In 1992, 64% of the world’s psychology researchers were American and in Baron
and Byrne’s 1991 textbook, 94% of the studies were conducted in North America
Suggests that, as well as being a male-dominated discipline, psychology is the study
of white Americans only
Despite this, many psychologists may claim to have found out ‘universal facts’ about
human behaviour
Cultural bias; if the standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the view
of one culture, then any cultural differences that deviate from this normal will be
seen as ‘abnormal or unusual’
Universality and Bias:
Many argue that while psychology may claim to have found truths that apply to
people all over the world, findings from studies can only be applied to those studied
as part of research
