HUMAN BIOLOGY | Complete
Summary Notes |High-Yield Exam
Review | 2026 Edition
, Human Skeletal System ........................................ 85
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of 1. Bone Formation and
Anatomy and Physiology Its Regulation .......................................... 85
Body Organization of Organisms ........................... 6 2. Types of Bones......................................... 87
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds ............. 6 3. Bone Growth ........................................... 88
2. Cells.............................................................6 4. Parts of the Human Skeleton .................. 90
3. Tissues ....................................................... 7 5. Joints........................................................ 95
4. Organs And Systems ................................. 8 Muscles ................................................................... 99
Human Physiology .................................................. 8 1. Muscle Tissue .......................................... 99
1. Body Cavities ..............................................8 2. The Muscular System
2. Fluids Of The Body ......................................8 of Vertebrates ....................................... 102
3. Membranes of the Body.............................9 Chapter 6: Circulatory System
4. Homeostasis ............................................. 9 Circulatory System .............................................. 112
Chapter 2: Nervous System The Human Circulatory System .......................... 112
The Nervous System ............................................. 16 1. Heart ...................................................... 112
1. Organization of the Nervous System ...... 17 2. Blood Vessels ........................................ 119
2. The Human Nervous System .................. 22 3. Blood ...................................................... 125
Chapter 3: Senses Immunology ......................................................... 135
Sensory Reception ................................................ 38 1. Organs Of The Immune System........... 135
Receptors And Sensation ..................................... 38 2. Acquisition of Immunity ......................... 137
The Human Eye ...................................................... 39 3. Types of Immunity ................................ 137
1. The structure of the eye sphere............. 39 4. Allergy .................................................... 144
2. External Structures of the Eye................ 41 5. Immunologic Tolerance ........................ 144
3. Visual Process .......................................... 42 6. Vaccines ................................................ 144
4. Eye Defects .............................................. 43 7. Serum .................................................... 145
The Ears.................................................................. 45 Chapter 7: Respiratory System
1. The Structure of the Ears ........................ 45 Respiratory Systems ........................................... 150
2. Hearing .................................................... 49 1. The Human Respiratory System ........... 150
Skin ......................................................................... 52 Chapter 8: Digestive System
1. Epidermis ................................................ 53 Nutrients and The Digestive System ................ 164
2. Dermis ..................................................... 54 1. Digestive Systems ................................. 164
3. Accesory Structures of the Skin ............ 54 The Human Digestive System ............................ 166
4. Touch Receptors...................................... 56 1. Organs of the Digestive System ........... 167
Smell ....................................................................... 57 2. Digestive Secretions .............................. 173
1. Mechanism of Smelling ........................... 58 3. The Digestion of Food ........................... 179
Taste....................................................................... 60 4. Absorption ............................................ 181
1. The function of the tongue ..................... 61 Nutrition .............................................................. 186
Chapter 4: Endocrine System 1. Carbohydrates...................................... 186
Endocrine System ................................................. 64 2. Lipids ...................................................... 187
1. Hormones According to 3. Proteins ................................................. 187
Their Chemical Structure ........................ 64 4. Vitamins ................................................ 188
2. Target Organs of Hormones .................... 65 5. Minerals.................................................. 189
3. The Regulation of Hormone Secretion 66 6. Water ..................................................... 189
The Human Endocrine System ............................. 67 Chapter 9: Excretory System
1. Endocrine Glands Excretory System ................................................ 196
in the Human Body ................................. 67 1. Excretory Substances ............................ 196
Chapter 5: Locomotion Systems 2. The Human Excretory System............... 197
Locomotion Systems ............................................. 84 Glossary................................................................ 209
,Chapter 1:
, BODY ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS
Organisms develop from a zygote formed by the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm. A living organism can carry out all its biological functions, survive
independently, grow and develop during its life span and reproduce to form
offspring.
An organism includes six groups of components (in order of size): atoms,
molecules, cells, tissues, organs and systems. These components are closely
related to each other for the survival of the organism.
Figure: An atom
Anatomy deals with the structures that constitute the organism, while
physiology deals with the function of these structures.
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds
Atoms are the simplest structural elements of living things, and more than 100
elements have been identified in the world. Each element has a unique atomic
structure. The most frequent elements found in living things are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Two atoms of the same
Figure: A molecule
element generally associate to form a molecule. For instance, two hydrogen atoms
associate to form a hydrogen molecule.
All organisms in Compounds differ from molecules in that their formation results from the
the world are cells combination of two or more atoms from different elements. The most well-known
(unicellular) or are compound is water, formed from the association of two hydrogen atoms and one
made up of groups oxygen atom. Carbon dioxide is formed from the association of two oxygen atoms
of cells (multicellular). and a carbon atom.
2. Cells
Cells are the building blocks of all living things, either
unicellular or multicellular. All metabolic activities are
performed within cells. Metabolism, excretion,
reproduction, respiration, irritability and growth are the
basic functions that cells must perform.
Cells have vital roles in the survival of an organism
despite their differences in structure and function. All are
involved in different functions such as movement, support,
energy etc. Thus, the unity of an organism is maintained by
differentiated cells. Although cells differ in function and
shape, they all possess an almost identical structure.
All are composed of a plasma membrane (or cell
HUMAN BIOLOGY
membrane), cytoplasm and nucleus. The plasma
membrane is involved in the protection of the cell, providing
shape, transport of materials and communication.
In plant cells, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a
rigid cell wall. It is nonliving and is composed of cellulose
molecules. Gates in the cell wall allow the passage of
Figure: An animal cell
materials through the cells.
6
Summary Notes |High-Yield Exam
Review | 2026 Edition
, Human Skeletal System ........................................ 85
Chapter 1: Basic Concepts of 1. Bone Formation and
Anatomy and Physiology Its Regulation .......................................... 85
Body Organization of Organisms ........................... 6 2. Types of Bones......................................... 87
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds ............. 6 3. Bone Growth ........................................... 88
2. Cells.............................................................6 4. Parts of the Human Skeleton .................. 90
3. Tissues ....................................................... 7 5. Joints........................................................ 95
4. Organs And Systems ................................. 8 Muscles ................................................................... 99
Human Physiology .................................................. 8 1. Muscle Tissue .......................................... 99
1. Body Cavities ..............................................8 2. The Muscular System
2. Fluids Of The Body ......................................8 of Vertebrates ....................................... 102
3. Membranes of the Body.............................9 Chapter 6: Circulatory System
4. Homeostasis ............................................. 9 Circulatory System .............................................. 112
Chapter 2: Nervous System The Human Circulatory System .......................... 112
The Nervous System ............................................. 16 1. Heart ...................................................... 112
1. Organization of the Nervous System ...... 17 2. Blood Vessels ........................................ 119
2. The Human Nervous System .................. 22 3. Blood ...................................................... 125
Chapter 3: Senses Immunology ......................................................... 135
Sensory Reception ................................................ 38 1. Organs Of The Immune System........... 135
Receptors And Sensation ..................................... 38 2. Acquisition of Immunity ......................... 137
The Human Eye ...................................................... 39 3. Types of Immunity ................................ 137
1. The structure of the eye sphere............. 39 4. Allergy .................................................... 144
2. External Structures of the Eye................ 41 5. Immunologic Tolerance ........................ 144
3. Visual Process .......................................... 42 6. Vaccines ................................................ 144
4. Eye Defects .............................................. 43 7. Serum .................................................... 145
The Ears.................................................................. 45 Chapter 7: Respiratory System
1. The Structure of the Ears ........................ 45 Respiratory Systems ........................................... 150
2. Hearing .................................................... 49 1. The Human Respiratory System ........... 150
Skin ......................................................................... 52 Chapter 8: Digestive System
1. Epidermis ................................................ 53 Nutrients and The Digestive System ................ 164
2. Dermis ..................................................... 54 1. Digestive Systems ................................. 164
3. Accesory Structures of the Skin ............ 54 The Human Digestive System ............................ 166
4. Touch Receptors...................................... 56 1. Organs of the Digestive System ........... 167
Smell ....................................................................... 57 2. Digestive Secretions .............................. 173
1. Mechanism of Smelling ........................... 58 3. The Digestion of Food ........................... 179
Taste....................................................................... 60 4. Absorption ............................................ 181
1. The function of the tongue ..................... 61 Nutrition .............................................................. 186
Chapter 4: Endocrine System 1. Carbohydrates...................................... 186
Endocrine System ................................................. 64 2. Lipids ...................................................... 187
1. Hormones According to 3. Proteins ................................................. 187
Their Chemical Structure ........................ 64 4. Vitamins ................................................ 188
2. Target Organs of Hormones .................... 65 5. Minerals.................................................. 189
3. The Regulation of Hormone Secretion 66 6. Water ..................................................... 189
The Human Endocrine System ............................. 67 Chapter 9: Excretory System
1. Endocrine Glands Excretory System ................................................ 196
in the Human Body ................................. 67 1. Excretory Substances ............................ 196
Chapter 5: Locomotion Systems 2. The Human Excretory System............... 197
Locomotion Systems ............................................. 84 Glossary................................................................ 209
,Chapter 1:
, BODY ORGANIZATION OF ORGANISMS
Organisms develop from a zygote formed by the fertilization of an egg by a
sperm. A living organism can carry out all its biological functions, survive
independently, grow and develop during its life span and reproduce to form
offspring.
An organism includes six groups of components (in order of size): atoms,
molecules, cells, tissues, organs and systems. These components are closely
related to each other for the survival of the organism.
Figure: An atom
Anatomy deals with the structures that constitute the organism, while
physiology deals with the function of these structures.
1. Atoms - Molecules - Compounds
Atoms are the simplest structural elements of living things, and more than 100
elements have been identified in the world. Each element has a unique atomic
structure. The most frequent elements found in living things are carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. Two atoms of the same
Figure: A molecule
element generally associate to form a molecule. For instance, two hydrogen atoms
associate to form a hydrogen molecule.
All organisms in Compounds differ from molecules in that their formation results from the
the world are cells combination of two or more atoms from different elements. The most well-known
(unicellular) or are compound is water, formed from the association of two hydrogen atoms and one
made up of groups oxygen atom. Carbon dioxide is formed from the association of two oxygen atoms
of cells (multicellular). and a carbon atom.
2. Cells
Cells are the building blocks of all living things, either
unicellular or multicellular. All metabolic activities are
performed within cells. Metabolism, excretion,
reproduction, respiration, irritability and growth are the
basic functions that cells must perform.
Cells have vital roles in the survival of an organism
despite their differences in structure and function. All are
involved in different functions such as movement, support,
energy etc. Thus, the unity of an organism is maintained by
differentiated cells. Although cells differ in function and
shape, they all possess an almost identical structure.
All are composed of a plasma membrane (or cell
HUMAN BIOLOGY
membrane), cytoplasm and nucleus. The plasma
membrane is involved in the protection of the cell, providing
shape, transport of materials and communication.
In plant cells, the plasma membrane is surrounded by a
rigid cell wall. It is nonliving and is composed of cellulose
molecules. Gates in the cell wall allow the passage of
Figure: An animal cell
materials through the cells.
6
