COG170 COGITO FUNDAMENTALS 2026
NEWEST EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.
1. In the context of the extended mind hypothesis, which of the following scenarios provides the
strongest evidence for cognitive extension beyond the biological boundary?
A. A person using a smartphone to calculate a complex arithmetic problem, where the phone is seamlessly
integrated into their cognitive routine.
B. A person writing down a phone number on a piece of paper to remember it later, but the paper is not
consulted during recall.
C. A person relying on a memory aid like a calendar that is not directly accessible at the moment of recall.
D. A person using a brain-computer interface to control a prosthetic limb, where the interface is surgically
implanted.
Answer: A
Rationale: The extended mind hypothesis (Clark & Chalmers) argues that external objects can become
part of the cognitive system when they are reliably coupled and used automatically. Option A exemplifies
this: the smartphone is integrated and used seamlessly, meeting the criteria of coupling and
accessibility. Option B fails because the paper is not consulted; option C fails because the calendar is
not accessible; option D involves a biological interface but the extension is still within the body.
2. A researcher proposes a cognitive architecture that includes a central executive system with
limited capacity, two subsidiary systems for visuospatial and phonological information, and an
episodic buffer. This architecture is most consistent with which model?
A. Baddeley's model of working memory
B. Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model
C. Tulving's episodic-semantic distinction
D. Cowan's embedded-processes model
Answer: A
Rationale: Baddeley's working memory model includes the central executive, phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad, and later added the episodic buffer. The description matches exactly.
Atkinson-Shiffrin is a multi-store model with sensory, short-term, and long-term stores, without the
specific subsystems. Tulving's distinction is about types of long-term memory, not a working memory
architecture. Cowan's model is an embedded-processes view with a focus on attention, not the specified
subsystems.
3. In a neuroimaging study on visual perception, participants are shown ambiguous figures (e.g.,
Rubin's vase). The study finds that activity in the fusiform face area (FFA) increases when the
figure is perceived as a face, while activity in the parahippocampal place area (PPA) increases
when perceived as a vase. This pattern supports which account of consciousness?
A. Global workspace theory, as the content of consciousness is determined by widespread neural activity.
Page 1
,B. Higher-order thought theory, as meta-representation of perceptual states is required.
C. Integrated information theory, as the conscious percept corresponds to the maximally integrated cause-effect structure.
D. Local recurrence theory, as conscious perception is tied to recurrent processing within specialized cortical modules.
Answer: D
Rationale: The finding that perception of the same stimulus shifts between two distinct neural populations
(FFA vs. PPA) depending on conscious percept supports local recurrence theory, which posits that
consciousness arises from recurrent processing within specialized cortical areas. Global workspace
theory emphasizes widespread broadcasting, not local specialization. Higher-order thought theory
requires meta-representation, not directly supported here. Integrated information theory focuses on
global integration, not local switching.
4. A cognitive scientist argues that the Chinese Room argument demonstrates that syntax alone is
insufficient for semantics. Which of the following responses poses the most serious challenge to this
argument?
A. The system reply, which claims that the entire room, including the person, rules, and symbols, understands
Chinese.
B. The robot reply, which claims that if the room were connected to a robot that interacts with the world, it
could ground symbols.
C. The brain simulation reply, which claims that if the room simulates the neural processes of a Chinese
speaker, it would understand.
D. The combination reply, which claims that the person's inability to understand does not entail that the system
lacks understanding.
Answer: B
Rationale: The robot reply (Searle's own anticipation) is a challenge because it adds causal connections
to the world, potentially providing semantics through interaction. However, Searle argues that even with
such connections, the system would still lack genuine understanding. The system reply is a direct
objection but is often considered weak because it merely shifts the question. The brain simulation reply
is another challenge but focuses on internal structure rather than external grounding. The combination
reply is not standard.
5. In a study of language acquisition, researchers find that infants at 12 months can distinguish
between phonetic contrasts that are not present in their native language, but by 12 months this
ability declines. This pattern is best explained by:
A. Chomsky's universal grammar, which posits innate linguistic knowledge that is later pruned.
B. Statistical learning, where infants track distributional patterns and attune to native sounds.
C. The critical period hypothesis, which states that language learning must occur before puberty.
D. The motor theory of speech perception, which links perception to articulatory gestures.
Answer: B
Rationale: The decline in sensitivity to non-native phonetic contrasts is a classic finding in developmental
psycholinguistics, supporting statistical learning: infants initially are sensitive to all contrasts but
gradually attune to the statistics of their native language, losing sensitivity to irrelevant contrasts.
Universal grammar does not predict this specific trajectory. The critical period hypothesis is about
overall language acquisition, not phonetic perception. The motor theory is about perception-action
links, not developmental loss.
Page 2
,6. Which of the following findings most directly challenges the classical view that concepts are
definitional (i.e., have necessary and sufficient conditions)?
A. People consistently rate typical members of a category (e.g., robin for bird) as more representative than
atypical members (e.g., penguin).
B. Patients with category-specific semantic deficits can lose knowledge of one category while retaining another.
C. Neural imaging shows that different brain regions are activated for different categories (e.g., tools vs.
animals).
D. Children learn basic-level categories (e.g., dog) before superordinate (e.g., animal) or subordinate (e.g.,
poodle).
Answer: A
Rationale: The classical view holds that concepts have defining features that all members share.
Typicality effects (where some members are judged more typical) challenge this because if all members
equally satisfy the definition, there should be no typicality gradient. Option B challenges the idea that
concepts are localized but not necessarily definitional. Option C supports neural specialization. Option
D is about developmental order, not directly about definitional structure.
7. A cognitive model of decision-making assumes that individuals evaluate options by computing
the weighted sum of attributes, but recent evidence shows that people often violate this principle by
exhibiting context-dependent preferences (e.g., attraction effect). Which of the following models
best accommodates such violations?
A. Expected utility theory with subjective probabilities
B. Prospect theory with loss aversion and probability weighting
C. Decision field theory with dynamic accumulation of evidence
D. Multi-attribute linear utility model with additive weighting
Answer: C
Rationale: Decision field theory is a dynamic model that accounts for context effects like the attraction
effect through competitive accumulation of evidence, where the presence of a decoy can shift
preferences. Expected utility theory and multi-attribute linear models assume independence of irrelevant
alternatives, which is violated by context effects. Prospect theory explains risk preferences but not the
attraction effect directly.
8. In the study of visual attention, the 'attentional blink' refers to the phenomenon where the
second of two targets presented in rapid succession is often missed. Which of the following
manipulations is most likely to reduce the attentional blink?
A. Increasing the perceptual load of the first target.
B. Making the second target semantically related to the first target.
C. Presenting the second target in a different modality (e.g., auditory).
D. Decreasing the temporal interval between the two targets.
Answer: B
Rationale: The attentional blink is reduced when the second target is semantically related to the first, as
this allows for faster consolidation or priming. Increasing perceptual load of the first target typically
increases the blink. Presenting in a different modality can reduce the blink because it bypasses the
bottleneck, but the question asks for reduction, and semantic relatedness is a well-established factor.
Decreasing the interval usually increases the blink (lag-1 sparing is an exception but not general).
Page 3
, 9. A neuroscientist records neural activity in the hippocampus of a rat navigating a maze. She finds
that place cells fire in specific locations, but their firing fields shift when the rat is exposed to a
different context (e.g., different maze shape). This phenomenon is known as:
A. Rate remapping
B. Global remapping
C. Phase precession
D. Grid cell rescaling
Answer: B
Rationale: Global remapping refers to a complete reorganization of place cell firing fields when the
environment is changed sufficiently (e.g., shape change), such that the fields are uncorrelated between
contexts. Rate remapping involves changes in firing rate without field relocation. Phase precession is a
temporal coding mechanism. Grid cell rescaling is a change in grid scale, not place cell fields.
10. A cognitive scientist proposes that the mind can be understood as a collection of
domain-specific modules, each processing a specific type of input (e.g., face recognition, language).
Which of the following findings provides the strongest evidence against this modular view?
A. Patients with prosopagnosia show impaired face recognition but intact object recognition.
B. Neuroimaging reveals that the fusiform face area responds to both faces and non-face stimuli after training.
C. Infants show preferential looking at faces compared to non-face stimuli from birth.
D. The language faculty is impaired in specific language impairment while other cognitive functions remain
intact.
Answer: B
Rationale: The modular view (Fodor, evolutionary psychology) posits that modules are domain-specific
and informationally encapsulated. Finding that a supposedly face-specific area (FFA) can respond to
non-face stimuli after training challenges domain specificity. Option A supports modularity (double
dissociation). Option C supports innate domain specificity. Option D also supports modularity (double
dissociation).
11. In the context of the Cogito framework, which of the following best characterizes the
relationship between 'noetic closure' and 'epistemic humility' when applied to a multi-agent
reasoning system?
A. Noetic closure ensures that all knowledge within a domain is fully transparent, thereby eliminating the need
for epistemic humility.
B. Epistemic humility is a prerequisite for noetic closure because it prevents premature commitment to
incomplete knowledge representations.
C. Noetic closure and epistemic humility are orthogonal properties; the former concerns the boundaries of
knowledge, the latter concerns the confidence in knowledge claims.
D. Noetic closure is a meta-cognitive constraint that, when combined with epistemic humility, allows an agent
to recognize the limits of its own reasoning and seek external validation.
Answer: D
Rationale: Noetic closure refers to the cognitive boundaries that prevent an agent from accessing certain
knowledge, while epistemic humility involves acknowledging the limitations of one's own knowledge. In
multi-agent systems, combining these concepts enables agents to recognize when they cannot resolve a
problem internally and need to consult others. Option A is incorrect because noetic closure does not
Page 4
NEWEST EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.
1. In the context of the extended mind hypothesis, which of the following scenarios provides the
strongest evidence for cognitive extension beyond the biological boundary?
A. A person using a smartphone to calculate a complex arithmetic problem, where the phone is seamlessly
integrated into their cognitive routine.
B. A person writing down a phone number on a piece of paper to remember it later, but the paper is not
consulted during recall.
C. A person relying on a memory aid like a calendar that is not directly accessible at the moment of recall.
D. A person using a brain-computer interface to control a prosthetic limb, where the interface is surgically
implanted.
Answer: A
Rationale: The extended mind hypothesis (Clark & Chalmers) argues that external objects can become
part of the cognitive system when they are reliably coupled and used automatically. Option A exemplifies
this: the smartphone is integrated and used seamlessly, meeting the criteria of coupling and
accessibility. Option B fails because the paper is not consulted; option C fails because the calendar is
not accessible; option D involves a biological interface but the extension is still within the body.
2. A researcher proposes a cognitive architecture that includes a central executive system with
limited capacity, two subsidiary systems for visuospatial and phonological information, and an
episodic buffer. This architecture is most consistent with which model?
A. Baddeley's model of working memory
B. Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model
C. Tulving's episodic-semantic distinction
D. Cowan's embedded-processes model
Answer: A
Rationale: Baddeley's working memory model includes the central executive, phonological loop,
visuospatial sketchpad, and later added the episodic buffer. The description matches exactly.
Atkinson-Shiffrin is a multi-store model with sensory, short-term, and long-term stores, without the
specific subsystems. Tulving's distinction is about types of long-term memory, not a working memory
architecture. Cowan's model is an embedded-processes view with a focus on attention, not the specified
subsystems.
3. In a neuroimaging study on visual perception, participants are shown ambiguous figures (e.g.,
Rubin's vase). The study finds that activity in the fusiform face area (FFA) increases when the
figure is perceived as a face, while activity in the parahippocampal place area (PPA) increases
when perceived as a vase. This pattern supports which account of consciousness?
A. Global workspace theory, as the content of consciousness is determined by widespread neural activity.
Page 1
,B. Higher-order thought theory, as meta-representation of perceptual states is required.
C. Integrated information theory, as the conscious percept corresponds to the maximally integrated cause-effect structure.
D. Local recurrence theory, as conscious perception is tied to recurrent processing within specialized cortical modules.
Answer: D
Rationale: The finding that perception of the same stimulus shifts between two distinct neural populations
(FFA vs. PPA) depending on conscious percept supports local recurrence theory, which posits that
consciousness arises from recurrent processing within specialized cortical areas. Global workspace
theory emphasizes widespread broadcasting, not local specialization. Higher-order thought theory
requires meta-representation, not directly supported here. Integrated information theory focuses on
global integration, not local switching.
4. A cognitive scientist argues that the Chinese Room argument demonstrates that syntax alone is
insufficient for semantics. Which of the following responses poses the most serious challenge to this
argument?
A. The system reply, which claims that the entire room, including the person, rules, and symbols, understands
Chinese.
B. The robot reply, which claims that if the room were connected to a robot that interacts with the world, it
could ground symbols.
C. The brain simulation reply, which claims that if the room simulates the neural processes of a Chinese
speaker, it would understand.
D. The combination reply, which claims that the person's inability to understand does not entail that the system
lacks understanding.
Answer: B
Rationale: The robot reply (Searle's own anticipation) is a challenge because it adds causal connections
to the world, potentially providing semantics through interaction. However, Searle argues that even with
such connections, the system would still lack genuine understanding. The system reply is a direct
objection but is often considered weak because it merely shifts the question. The brain simulation reply
is another challenge but focuses on internal structure rather than external grounding. The combination
reply is not standard.
5. In a study of language acquisition, researchers find that infants at 12 months can distinguish
between phonetic contrasts that are not present in their native language, but by 12 months this
ability declines. This pattern is best explained by:
A. Chomsky's universal grammar, which posits innate linguistic knowledge that is later pruned.
B. Statistical learning, where infants track distributional patterns and attune to native sounds.
C. The critical period hypothesis, which states that language learning must occur before puberty.
D. The motor theory of speech perception, which links perception to articulatory gestures.
Answer: B
Rationale: The decline in sensitivity to non-native phonetic contrasts is a classic finding in developmental
psycholinguistics, supporting statistical learning: infants initially are sensitive to all contrasts but
gradually attune to the statistics of their native language, losing sensitivity to irrelevant contrasts.
Universal grammar does not predict this specific trajectory. The critical period hypothesis is about
overall language acquisition, not phonetic perception. The motor theory is about perception-action
links, not developmental loss.
Page 2
,6. Which of the following findings most directly challenges the classical view that concepts are
definitional (i.e., have necessary and sufficient conditions)?
A. People consistently rate typical members of a category (e.g., robin for bird) as more representative than
atypical members (e.g., penguin).
B. Patients with category-specific semantic deficits can lose knowledge of one category while retaining another.
C. Neural imaging shows that different brain regions are activated for different categories (e.g., tools vs.
animals).
D. Children learn basic-level categories (e.g., dog) before superordinate (e.g., animal) or subordinate (e.g.,
poodle).
Answer: A
Rationale: The classical view holds that concepts have defining features that all members share.
Typicality effects (where some members are judged more typical) challenge this because if all members
equally satisfy the definition, there should be no typicality gradient. Option B challenges the idea that
concepts are localized but not necessarily definitional. Option C supports neural specialization. Option
D is about developmental order, not directly about definitional structure.
7. A cognitive model of decision-making assumes that individuals evaluate options by computing
the weighted sum of attributes, but recent evidence shows that people often violate this principle by
exhibiting context-dependent preferences (e.g., attraction effect). Which of the following models
best accommodates such violations?
A. Expected utility theory with subjective probabilities
B. Prospect theory with loss aversion and probability weighting
C. Decision field theory with dynamic accumulation of evidence
D. Multi-attribute linear utility model with additive weighting
Answer: C
Rationale: Decision field theory is a dynamic model that accounts for context effects like the attraction
effect through competitive accumulation of evidence, where the presence of a decoy can shift
preferences. Expected utility theory and multi-attribute linear models assume independence of irrelevant
alternatives, which is violated by context effects. Prospect theory explains risk preferences but not the
attraction effect directly.
8. In the study of visual attention, the 'attentional blink' refers to the phenomenon where the
second of two targets presented in rapid succession is often missed. Which of the following
manipulations is most likely to reduce the attentional blink?
A. Increasing the perceptual load of the first target.
B. Making the second target semantically related to the first target.
C. Presenting the second target in a different modality (e.g., auditory).
D. Decreasing the temporal interval between the two targets.
Answer: B
Rationale: The attentional blink is reduced when the second target is semantically related to the first, as
this allows for faster consolidation or priming. Increasing perceptual load of the first target typically
increases the blink. Presenting in a different modality can reduce the blink because it bypasses the
bottleneck, but the question asks for reduction, and semantic relatedness is a well-established factor.
Decreasing the interval usually increases the blink (lag-1 sparing is an exception but not general).
Page 3
, 9. A neuroscientist records neural activity in the hippocampus of a rat navigating a maze. She finds
that place cells fire in specific locations, but their firing fields shift when the rat is exposed to a
different context (e.g., different maze shape). This phenomenon is known as:
A. Rate remapping
B. Global remapping
C. Phase precession
D. Grid cell rescaling
Answer: B
Rationale: Global remapping refers to a complete reorganization of place cell firing fields when the
environment is changed sufficiently (e.g., shape change), such that the fields are uncorrelated between
contexts. Rate remapping involves changes in firing rate without field relocation. Phase precession is a
temporal coding mechanism. Grid cell rescaling is a change in grid scale, not place cell fields.
10. A cognitive scientist proposes that the mind can be understood as a collection of
domain-specific modules, each processing a specific type of input (e.g., face recognition, language).
Which of the following findings provides the strongest evidence against this modular view?
A. Patients with prosopagnosia show impaired face recognition but intact object recognition.
B. Neuroimaging reveals that the fusiform face area responds to both faces and non-face stimuli after training.
C. Infants show preferential looking at faces compared to non-face stimuli from birth.
D. The language faculty is impaired in specific language impairment while other cognitive functions remain
intact.
Answer: B
Rationale: The modular view (Fodor, evolutionary psychology) posits that modules are domain-specific
and informationally encapsulated. Finding that a supposedly face-specific area (FFA) can respond to
non-face stimuli after training challenges domain specificity. Option A supports modularity (double
dissociation). Option C supports innate domain specificity. Option D also supports modularity (double
dissociation).
11. In the context of the Cogito framework, which of the following best characterizes the
relationship between 'noetic closure' and 'epistemic humility' when applied to a multi-agent
reasoning system?
A. Noetic closure ensures that all knowledge within a domain is fully transparent, thereby eliminating the need
for epistemic humility.
B. Epistemic humility is a prerequisite for noetic closure because it prevents premature commitment to
incomplete knowledge representations.
C. Noetic closure and epistemic humility are orthogonal properties; the former concerns the boundaries of
knowledge, the latter concerns the confidence in knowledge claims.
D. Noetic closure is a meta-cognitive constraint that, when combined with epistemic humility, allows an agent
to recognize the limits of its own reasoning and seek external validation.
Answer: D
Rationale: Noetic closure refers to the cognitive boundaries that prevent an agent from accessing certain
knowledge, while epistemic humility involves acknowledging the limitations of one's own knowledge. In
multi-agent systems, combining these concepts enables agents to recognize when they cannot resolve a
problem internally and need to consult others. Option A is incorrect because noetic closure does not
Page 4
