OPOTA Final Exam (SPOs) 2026
The relationship between a student performance objective and a test question
A test question must respond directly to an SPO and every SPO may be the basis of a
test question
The ultimate reason for law enforcement training
To be able to protect life and property of yourself and the public
A peace officer's main goals
1. Enforce laws
2. Preserve the peace
3. Prevent crimes
4. Protect civil rights and liberties
5. Provide services
Considerations when exercising discretion
•Use sound judgment to determine which laws are to be formally enforced
•Determine if there is a more constructive remedy to a situation without an arrest or
citation (e.g., referring a homeless person to a shelter rather than a trespassing arrest)
Factors necessary for the commission of a crime (crime triangle)
1. Desire
•The motivation behind criminal behavior (e.g., financial gain, power, revenge, fear,
narcotics usage)
•This factor is the most difficult to change
2. Victim
•The potential target
•Criminals prefer an easy target that is unaware of his/her surroundings or lacking
proper security precautions
•Difficult to change this factor due to individual personalities
3. Opportunity
•Removing opportunity for crime with proper security measures applied to the victim's
environment (e.g., locking doors/windows, removing valuables from open view, good
lighting)
•Most effective area to concentrate crime prevention strategies
Core concepts of community policing
- a partnership between the police and the community
- crime prevention
- organizational change of the agency
- a problem- solving approach to the police role that is proactive
Considerations for off duty situations
1. Behavior
•An officer's behavior is often scrutinized by the community even when not on duty
•Not only does this refer to physical and verbal actions, but also online activity on social
media
,•An officer is expected to uphold the law enforcement code of ethics
2. Situational awareness
•An officer should make every effort to remain alert even when not working
•You never know when you may need to transition quickly from a private citizen to a
peace officer
•Make certain to preplan with your family should a situation arise while together. Create
a number of scenarios for your family to practice
•Familiarize yourself with your agency's off duty weapon policy
Be a good witness if a situation arises when police intervention is necessary
•If the situation involves a reasonable belief of serious physical harm, provide a
response as soon as practical
•However, if the situation is less serious, the best course of action is to observe the
incident until uniformed officers respond
•If you become involved, make contact withdispatch as soon as possible to provide
information about the incident and information about yourself (e.g., clothing you are
wearing, car you are driving, description of offenders and victims, pertinent officer safety
information)
State the purpose of the bill of rights
- protect an individual's freedoms
- prevent the government from interfering in protected rights
Describe the major components of the criminal justice system
1. Law enforcement
2. Courts
3. Corrections
List the goals of sentencing
1. punish the offender and in many cases, rehabilitate the offender
2. Protect society
3. Restore the victim as much as possible
The concepts of lawful actions and police legitimacy
1. Lawful - defined by laws and standards
•Criminal law - identifies what actions are prohibited
•Rules of agency (e.g., administrative rules, general orders, standard operating
procedures)
•Constitutional law (e.g., Fourth, Fifth, Sixth Amendments)
•Officers can act lawfully and within the parameters of agency policy and the citizenry
still not perceive there to be police legitimacy - there can be lawful, but awful
interactions
2. Police legitimacy - exists when the public views the police as authorized to exercise
power in order to maintain social order, manage conflicts, and solve problems in the
community
Three resulting judgments of police legitimacy in action that translate into positive
results
Judgment
- Public trust and confidence in the police as being honest, trying to do jobs well, trying
to protect the community
,Result - Individuals are more likely to become actively involved in police-community
partnerships
Judgment - Public willingness to defer to the law and police authority
Result - There is a correlation between those who obey the laws and those who view
the police as legitimate; in addition, those who see the police as legitimate have an
increased willingness to cooperate by reporting crimes and providing valuable
information about known and suspected offenders
Judgment - Public belief that police actions are morally justified and appropriate
Result - Citizens are more likely to cooperate and defer in moments of crisis
Circumstances when filming police officers is permissible
•At least one party to the encounter consents or
•When officers are carrying out their duties in public, so long as it does not interfere with
the officers carrying out their duties
The relationship between race, genetics, and physical characteristics
•Race is a modern concept used to classify people by similar, observable physical
characteristics
•It is not, as many people think, based on genetics
•Despite surface appearances, humans are one of the most genetically similar of all
species and ...
•Within the human species, there is no distinct genetic profile that completely
distinguishes one so-called race from another
•This is because most genetically influenced traits, like skin color, hair, eye shape, blood
type, athleticism, and intelligence, are inherited completely independent of one another
The connection between in-groups, out-groups and police legitimacy
•Some individuals interpret their encounters with police in terms of their group's societal
position rather than, or in addition to, the immediate circumstances of the police contact
Types of racism
Individual racism - Internalized, unexpressed biases and prejudices based on race
Interpersonal racism - Occurs between individuals. Includes public expressions of racial
prejudice and hate made by individuals
Institutional racism
•Race based discriminatory policies and treatment that are produced and perpetuated
by institutions (e.g., schools, mass media, governments, banks) that result in inequitable
opportunities and impacts
•Occurs within and between institutions
•Includes the discriminatory actions of individuals exercising the authority of the
institution (e.g., a bank loan officer, representing a banking institution, treating someone
with racial bias; a police officer, representing a law enforcement institution, treating
someone with racial bias)
, Structural racism
•Refers to the collective way history, culture, and institutions reinforce and perpetuate
racializedoutcomes, even in the absence of racist intent
•It is broadly encompassing - it touches on all aspects of society (e.g., history, politics,
economics) and is the foundation from which the other types of racism emerge
•Indicators include power inequalities, unequal access to opportunities, and differing
policy outcomes by race, whether or not intentional
Components of bias
•Stereotypes - generalizations about the perceived "typical" characteristics of a social
category (i.e., cognitive component)
‒We categorize people by age, gender, race, and role
‒Stereotypes do not necessarily have to have a negative connotation, as social
scientists point out that it is just a way for our brain to quickly sort people into
recognizable groups
•Prejudices - an often negative prejudgment based on characteristics such as race, age,
etc. that is not necessarily reasonable or logical
•Attitude - positive or negative feelings associated with individuals or groups; the
tendency to like or dislike, or to act favorably or unfavorably, toward someone or
something
Bias-based profiling and criminal profiling
•Bias-based profiling, racial profiling, and illegal profiling have the same meaning and
are used interchangeably
•Bias-based profiling is unequal treatment by a law enforcement officer of any person by
stopping, questioning, searching, detaining or arresting him/her on the basis of the
person's ethnic or racial characteristics, gender, religion, or sexual orientation
•Criminal profiling - based on observed behaviors and characteristics
•Bias-based profiling - the factors of race/ethnicity and bias towards that race are
initiating factors for law enforcement intervention
Two types of bias
Explicit bias and implicit bias - common characteristics
•Everyone possesses them
•They have real-world effects on behavior
•They can relate, for example, to race, religion, gender, sexuality, disability, height,
weight, or age
Explicit bias - conscious preference (positive or negative) for a social category
Implicit bias - preference (positive or negative) for a social category based on
stereotypes or attitudes that we hold and tend to develop early in life and that operate
outside of our awareness
•Implicit biases are related to explicit biases, but they are still distinct concepts
‒While the two types of biases may reinforce each other, implicit biases can be
dissociated from explicit biases - our implicit biases do not necessarily align with our
explicit beliefs
‒Implicit biases are largely hidden from us, but their effects are pervasive and powerful,
and understanding implicit biases is important because they have the potential to impact
our interactions and efforts to effectively use procedural justice tactics to promote police
legitimacy
The relationship between a student performance objective and a test question
A test question must respond directly to an SPO and every SPO may be the basis of a
test question
The ultimate reason for law enforcement training
To be able to protect life and property of yourself and the public
A peace officer's main goals
1. Enforce laws
2. Preserve the peace
3. Prevent crimes
4. Protect civil rights and liberties
5. Provide services
Considerations when exercising discretion
•Use sound judgment to determine which laws are to be formally enforced
•Determine if there is a more constructive remedy to a situation without an arrest or
citation (e.g., referring a homeless person to a shelter rather than a trespassing arrest)
Factors necessary for the commission of a crime (crime triangle)
1. Desire
•The motivation behind criminal behavior (e.g., financial gain, power, revenge, fear,
narcotics usage)
•This factor is the most difficult to change
2. Victim
•The potential target
•Criminals prefer an easy target that is unaware of his/her surroundings or lacking
proper security precautions
•Difficult to change this factor due to individual personalities
3. Opportunity
•Removing opportunity for crime with proper security measures applied to the victim's
environment (e.g., locking doors/windows, removing valuables from open view, good
lighting)
•Most effective area to concentrate crime prevention strategies
Core concepts of community policing
- a partnership between the police and the community
- crime prevention
- organizational change of the agency
- a problem- solving approach to the police role that is proactive
Considerations for off duty situations
1. Behavior
•An officer's behavior is often scrutinized by the community even when not on duty
•Not only does this refer to physical and verbal actions, but also online activity on social
media
,•An officer is expected to uphold the law enforcement code of ethics
2. Situational awareness
•An officer should make every effort to remain alert even when not working
•You never know when you may need to transition quickly from a private citizen to a
peace officer
•Make certain to preplan with your family should a situation arise while together. Create
a number of scenarios for your family to practice
•Familiarize yourself with your agency's off duty weapon policy
Be a good witness if a situation arises when police intervention is necessary
•If the situation involves a reasonable belief of serious physical harm, provide a
response as soon as practical
•However, if the situation is less serious, the best course of action is to observe the
incident until uniformed officers respond
•If you become involved, make contact withdispatch as soon as possible to provide
information about the incident and information about yourself (e.g., clothing you are
wearing, car you are driving, description of offenders and victims, pertinent officer safety
information)
State the purpose of the bill of rights
- protect an individual's freedoms
- prevent the government from interfering in protected rights
Describe the major components of the criminal justice system
1. Law enforcement
2. Courts
3. Corrections
List the goals of sentencing
1. punish the offender and in many cases, rehabilitate the offender
2. Protect society
3. Restore the victim as much as possible
The concepts of lawful actions and police legitimacy
1. Lawful - defined by laws and standards
•Criminal law - identifies what actions are prohibited
•Rules of agency (e.g., administrative rules, general orders, standard operating
procedures)
•Constitutional law (e.g., Fourth, Fifth, Sixth Amendments)
•Officers can act lawfully and within the parameters of agency policy and the citizenry
still not perceive there to be police legitimacy - there can be lawful, but awful
interactions
2. Police legitimacy - exists when the public views the police as authorized to exercise
power in order to maintain social order, manage conflicts, and solve problems in the
community
Three resulting judgments of police legitimacy in action that translate into positive
results
Judgment
- Public trust and confidence in the police as being honest, trying to do jobs well, trying
to protect the community
,Result - Individuals are more likely to become actively involved in police-community
partnerships
Judgment - Public willingness to defer to the law and police authority
Result - There is a correlation between those who obey the laws and those who view
the police as legitimate; in addition, those who see the police as legitimate have an
increased willingness to cooperate by reporting crimes and providing valuable
information about known and suspected offenders
Judgment - Public belief that police actions are morally justified and appropriate
Result - Citizens are more likely to cooperate and defer in moments of crisis
Circumstances when filming police officers is permissible
•At least one party to the encounter consents or
•When officers are carrying out their duties in public, so long as it does not interfere with
the officers carrying out their duties
The relationship between race, genetics, and physical characteristics
•Race is a modern concept used to classify people by similar, observable physical
characteristics
•It is not, as many people think, based on genetics
•Despite surface appearances, humans are one of the most genetically similar of all
species and ...
•Within the human species, there is no distinct genetic profile that completely
distinguishes one so-called race from another
•This is because most genetically influenced traits, like skin color, hair, eye shape, blood
type, athleticism, and intelligence, are inherited completely independent of one another
The connection between in-groups, out-groups and police legitimacy
•Some individuals interpret their encounters with police in terms of their group's societal
position rather than, or in addition to, the immediate circumstances of the police contact
Types of racism
Individual racism - Internalized, unexpressed biases and prejudices based on race
Interpersonal racism - Occurs between individuals. Includes public expressions of racial
prejudice and hate made by individuals
Institutional racism
•Race based discriminatory policies and treatment that are produced and perpetuated
by institutions (e.g., schools, mass media, governments, banks) that result in inequitable
opportunities and impacts
•Occurs within and between institutions
•Includes the discriminatory actions of individuals exercising the authority of the
institution (e.g., a bank loan officer, representing a banking institution, treating someone
with racial bias; a police officer, representing a law enforcement institution, treating
someone with racial bias)
, Structural racism
•Refers to the collective way history, culture, and institutions reinforce and perpetuate
racializedoutcomes, even in the absence of racist intent
•It is broadly encompassing - it touches on all aspects of society (e.g., history, politics,
economics) and is the foundation from which the other types of racism emerge
•Indicators include power inequalities, unequal access to opportunities, and differing
policy outcomes by race, whether or not intentional
Components of bias
•Stereotypes - generalizations about the perceived "typical" characteristics of a social
category (i.e., cognitive component)
‒We categorize people by age, gender, race, and role
‒Stereotypes do not necessarily have to have a negative connotation, as social
scientists point out that it is just a way for our brain to quickly sort people into
recognizable groups
•Prejudices - an often negative prejudgment based on characteristics such as race, age,
etc. that is not necessarily reasonable or logical
•Attitude - positive or negative feelings associated with individuals or groups; the
tendency to like or dislike, or to act favorably or unfavorably, toward someone or
something
Bias-based profiling and criminal profiling
•Bias-based profiling, racial profiling, and illegal profiling have the same meaning and
are used interchangeably
•Bias-based profiling is unequal treatment by a law enforcement officer of any person by
stopping, questioning, searching, detaining or arresting him/her on the basis of the
person's ethnic or racial characteristics, gender, religion, or sexual orientation
•Criminal profiling - based on observed behaviors and characteristics
•Bias-based profiling - the factors of race/ethnicity and bias towards that race are
initiating factors for law enforcement intervention
Two types of bias
Explicit bias and implicit bias - common characteristics
•Everyone possesses them
•They have real-world effects on behavior
•They can relate, for example, to race, religion, gender, sexuality, disability, height,
weight, or age
Explicit bias - conscious preference (positive or negative) for a social category
Implicit bias - preference (positive or negative) for a social category based on
stereotypes or attitudes that we hold and tend to develop early in life and that operate
outside of our awareness
•Implicit biases are related to explicit biases, but they are still distinct concepts
‒While the two types of biases may reinforce each other, implicit biases can be
dissociated from explicit biases - our implicit biases do not necessarily align with our
explicit beliefs
‒Implicit biases are largely hidden from us, but their effects are pervasive and powerful,
and understanding implicit biases is important because they have the potential to impact
our interactions and efforts to effectively use procedural justice tactics to promote police
legitimacy
