CLINICAL SCIENCE & PRACTICE EXAM 2
CERTIFICATION TEST 2026 QUESTIONS AND
VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY PASSED
◉ Define observational studies.
Answer: study in which the researcher is documenting a naturally
occurring relationship between the exposure and the outcome being
studied
◉ Describe descriptive studies, a type of observational study.
Answer: - usually non-analytical
- low level of evidence
- describe data on one or more characteristics of an individual or
group
- does not formally try to answer a research question about cause-
effect or establish a relationship between variables
◉ Define cross-sectional studies.
Answer: a prevalence study; descriptive study that examines
relationships between an outcome or exposure and other
characteristics of people in a population at ONE POINT in time
◉ Define case-control studies.
,Answer: compares people who have the disease/outcome to those
who do not with respect to characteristics or variables of interest
◉ Define cohort studis.
Answer: incidence study; measures outcomes in a population
initially free of that outcome and relates then to subsequent
development of the outcome in that population as it is followed over
time
◉ Major limitation of observational studies.
Answer: cannot show causality, only association
◉ T/F: results of observational studies can provide the preliminary
data to inform the design and conduct a RCT when feasible.
Answer: true
◉ ______ observational study designs may have more generalizability
than an RCT if well conducted..
Answer: cohort
◉ Hierarchy of evidence.
Answer: meta-analyses > systematic reviews > RCT > cohort studies
> case-control studies > cross-sectional > case report > mechanistic
studies > editorials/expert opinion
,◉ Exposure/outcome possibilities in cross-sectional design at time
of data collection.
Answer: exposed and outcome present
exposed and no outcome
unexposed and outcome present
unexposed and no outcome
◉ Cross-sectional studies are often used to study what type of
conditions?.
Answer: frequent with long duration of expression
◉ Cross-sectional studies quantify _______ by cannot measure
incidence of disease.
Answer: prevalence
◉ Advantages of cross-sectional studies.
Answer: - quick and inexpensive
- ethically safe
- data on all variables collected at only one point in time
- multiple outcomes and exposures can be collected
- suitable for generating hypotheses
, ◉ Disadvantages of cross-sectional studies.
Answer: - can only establish association, not causality
- not able to investigate temporal relationship
- highly susceptible to biases such as recall, observer, sampling, and
nonresponse
- confounders may be unequally distributed
- not suitable for rare or quickly emerging disease
◉ When are case-control studies preferred?.
Answer: disease outcomes are rare
◉ How is exposure data collected in case-control studies?.
Answer: retrospectively
◉ Describe how exposures are identified in case-control studies.
Answer: 1. collect study population
2. sort individuals into those with outcome and those without
outcome
3. determine who was exposed vs. unexposed in each group
◉ Advantages of case-control studies.
CERTIFICATION TEST 2026 QUESTIONS AND
VERIFIED ANSWERS ALREADY PASSED
◉ Define observational studies.
Answer: study in which the researcher is documenting a naturally
occurring relationship between the exposure and the outcome being
studied
◉ Describe descriptive studies, a type of observational study.
Answer: - usually non-analytical
- low level of evidence
- describe data on one or more characteristics of an individual or
group
- does not formally try to answer a research question about cause-
effect or establish a relationship between variables
◉ Define cross-sectional studies.
Answer: a prevalence study; descriptive study that examines
relationships between an outcome or exposure and other
characteristics of people in a population at ONE POINT in time
◉ Define case-control studies.
,Answer: compares people who have the disease/outcome to those
who do not with respect to characteristics or variables of interest
◉ Define cohort studis.
Answer: incidence study; measures outcomes in a population
initially free of that outcome and relates then to subsequent
development of the outcome in that population as it is followed over
time
◉ Major limitation of observational studies.
Answer: cannot show causality, only association
◉ T/F: results of observational studies can provide the preliminary
data to inform the design and conduct a RCT when feasible.
Answer: true
◉ ______ observational study designs may have more generalizability
than an RCT if well conducted..
Answer: cohort
◉ Hierarchy of evidence.
Answer: meta-analyses > systematic reviews > RCT > cohort studies
> case-control studies > cross-sectional > case report > mechanistic
studies > editorials/expert opinion
,◉ Exposure/outcome possibilities in cross-sectional design at time
of data collection.
Answer: exposed and outcome present
exposed and no outcome
unexposed and outcome present
unexposed and no outcome
◉ Cross-sectional studies are often used to study what type of
conditions?.
Answer: frequent with long duration of expression
◉ Cross-sectional studies quantify _______ by cannot measure
incidence of disease.
Answer: prevalence
◉ Advantages of cross-sectional studies.
Answer: - quick and inexpensive
- ethically safe
- data on all variables collected at only one point in time
- multiple outcomes and exposures can be collected
- suitable for generating hypotheses
, ◉ Disadvantages of cross-sectional studies.
Answer: - can only establish association, not causality
- not able to investigate temporal relationship
- highly susceptible to biases such as recall, observer, sampling, and
nonresponse
- confounders may be unequally distributed
- not suitable for rare or quickly emerging disease
◉ When are case-control studies preferred?.
Answer: disease outcomes are rare
◉ How is exposure data collected in case-control studies?.
Answer: retrospectively
◉ Describe how exposures are identified in case-control studies.
Answer: 1. collect study population
2. sort individuals into those with outcome and those without
outcome
3. determine who was exposed vs. unexposed in each group
◉ Advantages of case-control studies.
