NURS 5315 Advanced Patho Exam 1 Study
Guide (2026) | 100% Correct Answers | A+
• What is the body's defense against ROS? -✓✓Antioxidants (Vitamin E, Vitamin C,
cysteine, glutathione, albumin, ceruloplasmin, transferrin)
• How are free radicals produced? -✓✓1. Normal cellular respiration
2. Absorption of extreme energy sources (radiation, UV light)
3. Metabolism of exogenous chemicals, drugs, and pesticides
4. Transition of metals
5. Nitric oxide acting like a chemical mediator and a free radical
• action potential -✓✓Process of conducting an impulse. Activates the neuron --> the
neuron depolarizes --> then repolarizes
• Threshold potential -✓✓Point at which depolarization must reach in order to initiate an
action potential
• Hypokalemia and action potentials -✓✓HYPERpolarized (more negative, ex. -100).
Less excitable. Decreased neuromuscular excitability: weakness, smooth muscle atony,
paresthesia, cardiac dysrhythmias
• Hyperkalemia and action potentials -✓✓HYPOpolarized (more positive, ex: closer to
0). More excitable. Peaked T waves.
When resting membrane potential=threshold potential, it is BAD = cardiac standstill,
paresthesia, paralysis
• Hypocalcemia and action potentials -✓✓Increased permeability to Na+. More
excitable. Tetany, hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures, dysrhythmias.
• Hypercalcemia and action potentials -✓✓Decreased permeability to Na+. Less
excitable. Weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, encephalopathy,
depressed T waves
• Atrophy -✓✓Occurs as a result of decrease in work load, pressure, use, blood supply,
nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation. Once the cell has decreased in
size, it has now compensated for decreased blood supply, nerve supply, nutrient supply,
hormonal supply, and has achieved new homeostasis. Cells are alive but have
diminished function and may lead to cellular death.
• Atrophy examples -✓✓Physiologic atrophy- shrinking of the thymus gland during
childhood.
Disuse atrophy- someone that ends up being paralyzed
, • Hypertrophy -✓✓Increase in SIZE of cells, which will lead to increase in size of organ.
Caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand.
• Hypertrophy examples -✓✓physiologic hypertrophy- skeletal hypertrophy when a
person does heavy work or weight lifting / when a kidney is surgically removed, the
other kidney increases in size
pathologic hypertrophy- cardiomegaly results from an increased workload in
hypertensive patients / *left ventricular hypertrophy*
• Hyperplasia -✓✓Increase in NUMBER of cells. Results from increased rate of mitosis.
Can ONLY happen in cells that are capable of mitosis (cell division).
• Hyperplasia examples -✓✓1. Thickening of skin because of hyperplasia of epidermal
cells.
2. Hormonal hyperplasia- occurs in estrogen dependent organs like uterus and breast.
3. Compensatory hyperplasia- liver regenerates, callus on skin
4. Pathologic hyperplasia- estrogen is unopposed by progesterone and the endometrial
lining undergoes hyperplasia and increased risk for endometrial cancer
• Dysplasia -✓✓abnormal changes in the size, shape, and organization of mature cells
due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation
• Dysplasia examples -✓✓Pre cancer pap smears often show dysplastic cells of the
cervix that must undergo treatment.
• Metaplasia -✓✓Changed cell that is REVERSIBLE (one cell is replaced by another
cell). Exposure to chronic stressors, injury or irritation, like smoking or hydrochloric acid
from heart burn
• Metaplasia examples -✓✓Most common is change from columnar cells to squamous
cells (chronic smokers).
Less common is change from squamous to columnar cells, like in Barrett Esophagus
caused by heart burn.
• Carcinoma in situ -✓✓Pre-invasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or
squamous origin. Sites including cervix, skin, oral cavity, esophagus, and bronchus
• Hypoxic injury -✓✓1. Decrease in oxygen in the air (high altitudes, asphyxiation,
drowning)
2. Loss of hemoglobin function (hemorrhage or sickle cell anemia)
3. Decrease in production of red blood cells (anemia or leukemia)
4. Diseases of cardiopulmonary systems (ischemia, blood supply loss, arteriosclerosis)
• Hypoxic injury clinical manifestations -✓✓1. Increased CK (muscle and heart)
Guide (2026) | 100% Correct Answers | A+
• What is the body's defense against ROS? -✓✓Antioxidants (Vitamin E, Vitamin C,
cysteine, glutathione, albumin, ceruloplasmin, transferrin)
• How are free radicals produced? -✓✓1. Normal cellular respiration
2. Absorption of extreme energy sources (radiation, UV light)
3. Metabolism of exogenous chemicals, drugs, and pesticides
4. Transition of metals
5. Nitric oxide acting like a chemical mediator and a free radical
• action potential -✓✓Process of conducting an impulse. Activates the neuron --> the
neuron depolarizes --> then repolarizes
• Threshold potential -✓✓Point at which depolarization must reach in order to initiate an
action potential
• Hypokalemia and action potentials -✓✓HYPERpolarized (more negative, ex. -100).
Less excitable. Decreased neuromuscular excitability: weakness, smooth muscle atony,
paresthesia, cardiac dysrhythmias
• Hyperkalemia and action potentials -✓✓HYPOpolarized (more positive, ex: closer to
0). More excitable. Peaked T waves.
When resting membrane potential=threshold potential, it is BAD = cardiac standstill,
paresthesia, paralysis
• Hypocalcemia and action potentials -✓✓Increased permeability to Na+. More
excitable. Tetany, hyperreflexia, circumoral paresthesia, seizures, dysrhythmias.
• Hypercalcemia and action potentials -✓✓Decreased permeability to Na+. Less
excitable. Weakness, hyporeflexia, fatigue, lethargy, confusion, encephalopathy,
depressed T waves
• Atrophy -✓✓Occurs as a result of decrease in work load, pressure, use, blood supply,
nutrition, hormonal stimulation, or nervous stimulation. Once the cell has decreased in
size, it has now compensated for decreased blood supply, nerve supply, nutrient supply,
hormonal supply, and has achieved new homeostasis. Cells are alive but have
diminished function and may lead to cellular death.
• Atrophy examples -✓✓Physiologic atrophy- shrinking of the thymus gland during
childhood.
Disuse atrophy- someone that ends up being paralyzed
, • Hypertrophy -✓✓Increase in SIZE of cells, which will lead to increase in size of organ.
Caused by hormonal stimulation or increased functional demand.
• Hypertrophy examples -✓✓physiologic hypertrophy- skeletal hypertrophy when a
person does heavy work or weight lifting / when a kidney is surgically removed, the
other kidney increases in size
pathologic hypertrophy- cardiomegaly results from an increased workload in
hypertensive patients / *left ventricular hypertrophy*
• Hyperplasia -✓✓Increase in NUMBER of cells. Results from increased rate of mitosis.
Can ONLY happen in cells that are capable of mitosis (cell division).
• Hyperplasia examples -✓✓1. Thickening of skin because of hyperplasia of epidermal
cells.
2. Hormonal hyperplasia- occurs in estrogen dependent organs like uterus and breast.
3. Compensatory hyperplasia- liver regenerates, callus on skin
4. Pathologic hyperplasia- estrogen is unopposed by progesterone and the endometrial
lining undergoes hyperplasia and increased risk for endometrial cancer
• Dysplasia -✓✓abnormal changes in the size, shape, and organization of mature cells
due to persistent, severe cell injury or irritation
• Dysplasia examples -✓✓Pre cancer pap smears often show dysplastic cells of the
cervix that must undergo treatment.
• Metaplasia -✓✓Changed cell that is REVERSIBLE (one cell is replaced by another
cell). Exposure to chronic stressors, injury or irritation, like smoking or hydrochloric acid
from heart burn
• Metaplasia examples -✓✓Most common is change from columnar cells to squamous
cells (chronic smokers).
Less common is change from squamous to columnar cells, like in Barrett Esophagus
caused by heart burn.
• Carcinoma in situ -✓✓Pre-invasive epithelial malignant tumors of glandular or
squamous origin. Sites including cervix, skin, oral cavity, esophagus, and bronchus
• Hypoxic injury -✓✓1. Decrease in oxygen in the air (high altitudes, asphyxiation,
drowning)
2. Loss of hemoglobin function (hemorrhage or sickle cell anemia)
3. Decrease in production of red blood cells (anemia or leukemia)
4. Diseases of cardiopulmonary systems (ischemia, blood supply loss, arteriosclerosis)
• Hypoxic injury clinical manifestations -✓✓1. Increased CK (muscle and heart)
