1. The Country
ZUSATZ: Current affairs
Devolution & constitutional reform (UK-wide)
• The UK government under Labour has continued efforts to “reset” relations with
devolved governments (Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland).
• Key development:
o Creation/planning of a Council of the Nations and Regions to improve
coordination between Westminster and devolved governments
• Ongoing policy debate:
o further English devolution reforms and local growth policies discussed in
Parliament (2025–2026)
• Political tension remains over:
o how much power should stay with Westminster vs. be transferred to regions
Scotland: independence debate intensifies
• 2026 Scottish Parliament election period has intensified constitutional debate.
• Key developments:
o SNP leader John Swinney (2026) signals he will push for new referendum
powers immediately after election, even without majority support
o SNP strategy includes potential legal/political pressure on Westminster for
referendum authority
• Legal context:
o UK Supreme Court ruling (2022) still stands: Westminster must approve any
independence referendum
• Political climate:
o independence remains central issue in Scottish politics
o opposition parties (Labour, Conservatives) prioritise cost of living and public
services instead
Wales: political shift and devolution tensions
• Welsh politics is undergoing major electoral change in 2026.
• Key development:
o Welsh Labour, historically dominant since the start of devolution, is facing a
possible loss of government in the 2026 Senedd election
• Implications:
o rise of Plaid Cymru (Welsh nationalist party) as potential leading force
o growing fragmentation of Welsh political landscape (Labour, nationalist, and
Reform UK support gains)
• Constitutional significance:
o would mark a major shift in devolved governance within the UK system
Northern Ireland & UK relations (context 2025–2026)
• Ongoing political sensitivity linked to:
o post-Brexit arrangements (Windsor Framework)
o trade and border regulation between NI and the Republic of Ireland
• Stability depends on:
o power-sharing between unionist and nationalist parties
o continued UK–EU negotiations on trade rules
Overall UK constitutional trends (2025–2026)
• Increasing pressure on the Union due to:
o stronger regional/national identities (Scotland, Wales, NI)
o ongoing independence and autonomy debates
• Key pattern:
o UK remains formally unitary, but increasingly asymmetrical and
decentralised
1
, • Main tensions:
o Westminster control vs. regional autonomy
o stability of the Union vs. nationalist movements
• Political reality:
o devolution is not settled → continues to evolve through elections, court
rulings, and political negotiation
1.1 UK/Britain
a) Geographical Identities (UK)
1. Definition: United Kingdom and Great Britain
• The official constitutional name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland (UK or Britain).
• UK consists of England, Scotland, Wales (on Great Britain) and Northern Ireland.
• Great Britain refers specifically to the largest island, which includes England,
Scotland, and Wales, but not Northern Ireland.
• Geographically, the islands are often called the British Isles, although this term is
politically sensitive, especially in relation to Ireland.
• Northern Ireland shares the island of Ireland with the Republic of Ireland, which
has been independent since 1921.
• There are also many smaller islands (e.g. Anglesey, Isle of Wight, Orkneys,
Shetlands, Hebrides, Scillies) that are part of the UK.
• The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not part of the UK:
o They are Crown Dependencies
o They have their own legal systems, legislatures, and administrative
structures
o They are self-governing, but UK is responsible for defence/foreign affairs
o The UK government can intervene if good governance is not maintained
2. Britishness
• Many people identify with Britishness as a civic national identity, meaning a
shared sense of belonging to the UK.
• However, this sense of Britishness is weakening over time.
• At the same time, there are strong and historically rooted ethnic/national identities:
o Scottish, Welsh, English, and Northern Irish
• These identities have become more prominent, especially in:
o Scotland
o Wales
o (arguably) Northern Ireland
• key reason: devolution (1998–99); transferred political power away from London.
• England was largely excluded from devolution (except London), but this has led to
a growing awareness of English identity among some people.
3. Devolution
• Devolution refers to the transfer of political power from the UK Parliament in
London to regional/national bodies.
• This led to the creation of:
o a Parliament in Edinburgh (Scotland)
o an Assembly in Cardiff (Wales)
o an Assembly in Belfast (Northern Ireland)
• These institutions gave the nations greater political autonomy and self-
governance.
• As a result, these areas are now seen as “national units” rather than just regions.
• England did not receive equivalent institutions (except limited changes in London).
4. Regional Development Agencies (RDAs)
• Historically, Britain was divided into geographical regions, used for:
o economic planning
2
, o public services (e.g. gas, water, electricity)
• After devolution, nine regions were created in England.
• These regions were managed by Regional Development Agencies (RDAs):
o unelected bodies appointed by the government
o aimed to promote and coordinate regional economic development
• There was an intention that RDAs might evolve into elected regional assemblies,
similar to devolved governments.
• However:
o this did not happen (except partly in London)
o people in England generally did not identify with these regions
o RDAs were seen as remote and lacking democratic legitimacy
• Therefore, RDAs were abolished in 2010.
5. Local Economic Partnerships (LEPs)
• RDAs were replaced by Local Economic Partnerships (LEPs).
• LEPs are:
o voluntary partnerships between local authorities and businesses
• Their aim is to:
o promote local economic development
o create enterprise zones and partnerships
• Unlike RDAs:
o they do not have a devolved political role
o they are more flexible and locally based
• Their areas are still used for:
o administrative purposes
o EU Parliament constituencies (before Brexit)
o broadcasting regions (BBC, ITV)
o regional statistics
• Their effectiveness and necessity are often questioned, and their future role is
uncertain.
6. Localism vs. Regionalism
Regionalism
• Refers to identification with larger regions within the UK.
• Regions may have some functional roles, but:
o they are not strongly rooted in identity
o many people feel little connection to them
• Critics argue that regions are artificial or unnecessary.
• However, they might still serve as a basis for future devolution or federal
structures.
Localism
• Refers to identification with smaller, local areas, such as:
o historic counties (e.g. Yorkshire, Kent, Sussex)
o cities (e.g. Manchester, Glasgow, Cardiff)
o towns, villages, and local communities
• Localism is often seen as more important than regionalism in shaping identity.
• It reflects a strong sense of belonging, especially:
o further away from London and central government
• People may want to assert their local identity and autonomy.
7. Development of Local Identity
• In the past, local identity was very strong because:
o people lived in rural, less mobile communities
• Even though modern administrative reforms have:
o changed local government structures (e.g. unitary authorities)
• Many traditional identities (counties, cities) still:
3
, o persist
o remain meaningful to people
• These identities may even become stronger again in the future
b) Physical Features and Climate (UK)
1. General Importance of Physical Features
• Britain’s physical geography has historically influenced:
o settlement patterns and population movements
o military conquest and political union
o development of industry, agriculture, transport, fisheries, forestry, and
energy
• Today, physical features are closely linked to:
o environmental concerns (pollution, climate change, food production)
o government and EU policies (e.g. agriculture, fisheries, carbon emissions)
• Because Britain is densely populated, environmental issues strongly affect daily life.
2. Rural vs. Urban Conflict
• The countryside has become a major political issue in recent years.
• Groups such as farmers, conservationists, and the Countryside Alliance feel:
o neglected by government
• Key criticisms:
o destruction and pollution of the environment
o urban expansion (housing, airports, roads)
o decline of rural services (shops, transport, post offices, hospitals, pubs)
• There is a historical tension between urban and rural cultures:
o some reject rural life
o others feel a strong (often romanticised) attachment
• About 10 million people live in rural areas.
3. Location and Size
• Britain lies between:
o 49°N (southern England) and 61°N (Shetlands)
o 9°W to 2°E longitude
• It is small and compact compared to other European countries, but has:
o great physical diversity
• Total area: 244,820 sq km
o England: largest share
o Scotland: second largest
o Wales and Northern Ireland: much smaller
• Population (2011 Census):
o England dominates (84% of population) → explains its historical
dominance
4. Distances and Unity
• Distance:
o south England → north Scotland: ~600 miles
o east → west: ~300 miles
• These short distances helped:
o political unification
o development of communication and common institutions
• Before the 18th century, obstacles included:
o difficult terrain
o poor transport
o local differences and conflicts
5. Geological Development and Landscape
• Britain’s landscape formed through:
4
ZUSATZ: Current affairs
Devolution & constitutional reform (UK-wide)
• The UK government under Labour has continued efforts to “reset” relations with
devolved governments (Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland).
• Key development:
o Creation/planning of a Council of the Nations and Regions to improve
coordination between Westminster and devolved governments
• Ongoing policy debate:
o further English devolution reforms and local growth policies discussed in
Parliament (2025–2026)
• Political tension remains over:
o how much power should stay with Westminster vs. be transferred to regions
Scotland: independence debate intensifies
• 2026 Scottish Parliament election period has intensified constitutional debate.
• Key developments:
o SNP leader John Swinney (2026) signals he will push for new referendum
powers immediately after election, even without majority support
o SNP strategy includes potential legal/political pressure on Westminster for
referendum authority
• Legal context:
o UK Supreme Court ruling (2022) still stands: Westminster must approve any
independence referendum
• Political climate:
o independence remains central issue in Scottish politics
o opposition parties (Labour, Conservatives) prioritise cost of living and public
services instead
Wales: political shift and devolution tensions
• Welsh politics is undergoing major electoral change in 2026.
• Key development:
o Welsh Labour, historically dominant since the start of devolution, is facing a
possible loss of government in the 2026 Senedd election
• Implications:
o rise of Plaid Cymru (Welsh nationalist party) as potential leading force
o growing fragmentation of Welsh political landscape (Labour, nationalist, and
Reform UK support gains)
• Constitutional significance:
o would mark a major shift in devolved governance within the UK system
Northern Ireland & UK relations (context 2025–2026)
• Ongoing political sensitivity linked to:
o post-Brexit arrangements (Windsor Framework)
o trade and border regulation between NI and the Republic of Ireland
• Stability depends on:
o power-sharing between unionist and nationalist parties
o continued UK–EU negotiations on trade rules
Overall UK constitutional trends (2025–2026)
• Increasing pressure on the Union due to:
o stronger regional/national identities (Scotland, Wales, NI)
o ongoing independence and autonomy debates
• Key pattern:
o UK remains formally unitary, but increasingly asymmetrical and
decentralised
1
, • Main tensions:
o Westminster control vs. regional autonomy
o stability of the Union vs. nationalist movements
• Political reality:
o devolution is not settled → continues to evolve through elections, court
rulings, and political negotiation
1.1 UK/Britain
a) Geographical Identities (UK)
1. Definition: United Kingdom and Great Britain
• The official constitutional name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland (UK or Britain).
• UK consists of England, Scotland, Wales (on Great Britain) and Northern Ireland.
• Great Britain refers specifically to the largest island, which includes England,
Scotland, and Wales, but not Northern Ireland.
• Geographically, the islands are often called the British Isles, although this term is
politically sensitive, especially in relation to Ireland.
• Northern Ireland shares the island of Ireland with the Republic of Ireland, which
has been independent since 1921.
• There are also many smaller islands (e.g. Anglesey, Isle of Wight, Orkneys,
Shetlands, Hebrides, Scillies) that are part of the UK.
• The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are not part of the UK:
o They are Crown Dependencies
o They have their own legal systems, legislatures, and administrative
structures
o They are self-governing, but UK is responsible for defence/foreign affairs
o The UK government can intervene if good governance is not maintained
2. Britishness
• Many people identify with Britishness as a civic national identity, meaning a
shared sense of belonging to the UK.
• However, this sense of Britishness is weakening over time.
• At the same time, there are strong and historically rooted ethnic/national identities:
o Scottish, Welsh, English, and Northern Irish
• These identities have become more prominent, especially in:
o Scotland
o Wales
o (arguably) Northern Ireland
• key reason: devolution (1998–99); transferred political power away from London.
• England was largely excluded from devolution (except London), but this has led to
a growing awareness of English identity among some people.
3. Devolution
• Devolution refers to the transfer of political power from the UK Parliament in
London to regional/national bodies.
• This led to the creation of:
o a Parliament in Edinburgh (Scotland)
o an Assembly in Cardiff (Wales)
o an Assembly in Belfast (Northern Ireland)
• These institutions gave the nations greater political autonomy and self-
governance.
• As a result, these areas are now seen as “national units” rather than just regions.
• England did not receive equivalent institutions (except limited changes in London).
4. Regional Development Agencies (RDAs)
• Historically, Britain was divided into geographical regions, used for:
o economic planning
2
, o public services (e.g. gas, water, electricity)
• After devolution, nine regions were created in England.
• These regions were managed by Regional Development Agencies (RDAs):
o unelected bodies appointed by the government
o aimed to promote and coordinate regional economic development
• There was an intention that RDAs might evolve into elected regional assemblies,
similar to devolved governments.
• However:
o this did not happen (except partly in London)
o people in England generally did not identify with these regions
o RDAs were seen as remote and lacking democratic legitimacy
• Therefore, RDAs were abolished in 2010.
5. Local Economic Partnerships (LEPs)
• RDAs were replaced by Local Economic Partnerships (LEPs).
• LEPs are:
o voluntary partnerships between local authorities and businesses
• Their aim is to:
o promote local economic development
o create enterprise zones and partnerships
• Unlike RDAs:
o they do not have a devolved political role
o they are more flexible and locally based
• Their areas are still used for:
o administrative purposes
o EU Parliament constituencies (before Brexit)
o broadcasting regions (BBC, ITV)
o regional statistics
• Their effectiveness and necessity are often questioned, and their future role is
uncertain.
6. Localism vs. Regionalism
Regionalism
• Refers to identification with larger regions within the UK.
• Regions may have some functional roles, but:
o they are not strongly rooted in identity
o many people feel little connection to them
• Critics argue that regions are artificial or unnecessary.
• However, they might still serve as a basis for future devolution or federal
structures.
Localism
• Refers to identification with smaller, local areas, such as:
o historic counties (e.g. Yorkshire, Kent, Sussex)
o cities (e.g. Manchester, Glasgow, Cardiff)
o towns, villages, and local communities
• Localism is often seen as more important than regionalism in shaping identity.
• It reflects a strong sense of belonging, especially:
o further away from London and central government
• People may want to assert their local identity and autonomy.
7. Development of Local Identity
• In the past, local identity was very strong because:
o people lived in rural, less mobile communities
• Even though modern administrative reforms have:
o changed local government structures (e.g. unitary authorities)
• Many traditional identities (counties, cities) still:
3
, o persist
o remain meaningful to people
• These identities may even become stronger again in the future
b) Physical Features and Climate (UK)
1. General Importance of Physical Features
• Britain’s physical geography has historically influenced:
o settlement patterns and population movements
o military conquest and political union
o development of industry, agriculture, transport, fisheries, forestry, and
energy
• Today, physical features are closely linked to:
o environmental concerns (pollution, climate change, food production)
o government and EU policies (e.g. agriculture, fisheries, carbon emissions)
• Because Britain is densely populated, environmental issues strongly affect daily life.
2. Rural vs. Urban Conflict
• The countryside has become a major political issue in recent years.
• Groups such as farmers, conservationists, and the Countryside Alliance feel:
o neglected by government
• Key criticisms:
o destruction and pollution of the environment
o urban expansion (housing, airports, roads)
o decline of rural services (shops, transport, post offices, hospitals, pubs)
• There is a historical tension between urban and rural cultures:
o some reject rural life
o others feel a strong (often romanticised) attachment
• About 10 million people live in rural areas.
3. Location and Size
• Britain lies between:
o 49°N (southern England) and 61°N (Shetlands)
o 9°W to 2°E longitude
• It is small and compact compared to other European countries, but has:
o great physical diversity
• Total area: 244,820 sq km
o England: largest share
o Scotland: second largest
o Wales and Northern Ireland: much smaller
• Population (2011 Census):
o England dominates (84% of population) → explains its historical
dominance
4. Distances and Unity
• Distance:
o south England → north Scotland: ~600 miles
o east → west: ~300 miles
• These short distances helped:
o political unification
o development of communication and common institutions
• Before the 18th century, obstacles included:
o difficult terrain
o poor transport
o local differences and conflicts
5. Geological Development and Landscape
• Britain’s landscape formed through:
4
