TEST BANK
ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING: BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
PERPECTIVES
,Table of Contents
Adult Development and Aging
1. Themes and Issues in Adult Development and Aging
2. Models of Development: Nature and Nurture in Adulthood
3. The Study of Adult Development and Aging: Research Methods
4. Physical Changes
5. Health and Prevention
6. Basic Cognitive Functions: Speed, Attention, and Memory
7. Higher-order Cognitive Functions
8. Personality
9. Relationships
10. Work, Retirement, and Leisure Patterns
11. Mental Health Issues and Treatment
12. Long-term Care
13. Death and Dying
14. Successful Aging
,CHAPTER 1: Themes and Issues in Adult Development and Aging
═══════════════════════════════════════
✦ MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (20)
Question 1 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which of the following best defines the term "adult development" as used in the biopsychosocial
framework?
A) The biological changes that occur exclusively after age 65
B) Changes in psychological functioning that occur independently of biological influences
C) The systematic, multidimensional changes in biological, psychological, and social functioning that
occur throughout adulthood
D) A fixed sequence of stages that all adults experience in the same order and at the same time
✅Answer: C
Rationale: Adult development in the biopsychosocial framework refers to systematic, multidimensional
changes across biological, psychological, and social domains throughout adulthood. It is not limited to
late life (eliminating A), does not exclude biological influences (eliminating B), and is not a fixed universal
sequence (eliminating D). The biopsychosocial model emphasises the interaction among these three
domains across the entire adult lifespan.
Question 2 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which term refers to the maximum number of years a member of a species can live?
A) Life expectancy
B) Active life expectancy
C) Longevity
D) Maximum lifespan
✅Answer: D
Rationale: Maximum lifespan refers to the theoretical upper limit of years that members of a species
can survive—approximately 120–125 years for humans. Life expectancy is the average number of years
,a person born in a given year can expect to live based on current mortality rates. Active life
expectancy refers to the years lived free of disability. Longevity is a general term for long life but does
not specifically denote the species maximum.
Question 3 — (Difficulty: Basic)
A researcher studying aging focuses on changes in social roles, relationships, and cultural
expectations as people age. Which domain of the biopsychosocial model does this primarily represent?
A) Biological domain
B) Psychological domain
C) Sociocultural domain
D) Neurocognitive domain
✅Answer: C
Rationale: The sociocultural domain of the biopsychosocial model encompasses social roles, cultural
norms, interpersonal relationships, and societal expectations that influence development across
adulthood. The biological domain covers physiology and genetics; the psychological domain covers
cognition, personality, and emotion. "Neurocognitive" is not one of the three primary biopsychosocial
domains.
Question 4 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which of the following is the BEST example of ageism?
A) A physician conducting a thorough health assessment of a 75-year-old patient
B) A hiring manager assuming a 68-year-old applicant cannot learn new technology and rejecting her
application
C) A researcher documenting age-related changes in memory performance
D) A community centre offering fitness classes specifically designed for adults over 60
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Ageism involves stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against individuals based on their
age. The hiring manager's assumption that the older applicant cannot learn new technology is a negative
stereotype applied without evidence—the definition of ageism. The physician performing a health
assessment (A) and the researcher documenting changes (C) are professional activities, not
discriminatory. Offering age-appropriate classes (D) is accommodation, not discrimination.
,Question 5 — (Difficulty: Basic)
The concept that aging involves both gains and losses simultaneously is best associated with which
theoretical perspective?
A) The deficit model of aging
B) The biopsychosocial model
C) The lifespan developmental perspective
D) The disease model of aging
✅Answer: C
Rationale: The lifespan developmental perspective (associated with Paul Baltes and colleagues)
explicitly recognises that development across the lifespan involves both gains and losses, and that the
balance of gains to losses shifts across adulthood. It rejects the deficit model (A), which views aging only
as decline. The biopsychosocial model (B) describes domains of influence rather than the gains/losses
concept specifically. The disease model (D) views aging as pathology.
Question 6 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
A 72-year-old retired teacher volunteers to tutor struggling students, takes up painting, and joins a
walking club. According to Whitbourne's identity process theory, which process is most likely operating
when she actively incorporates these new roles into her sense of self?
A) Identity assimilation
B) Identity accommodation
C) Identity balance
D) Identity diffusion
✅Answer: A
Rationale: In identity process theory, identity assimilation occurs when individuals interpret new
experiences in terms of their existing identity. When the teacher incorporates new activities into her
pre-existing self-concept (e.g., "I am a lifelong learner and contributor"), she is assimilating experiences
into her identity. Identity accommodation would occur if she changed her self-concept in response to
experiences. Identity balance involves a healthy equilibrium between the two processes. Identity
diffusion (from Erikson/Marcia) refers to lack of identity commitment—not relevant here.
,Question 7 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
Which of the following correctly distinguishes primary aging from secondary aging?
A) Primary aging refers to disease-related changes; secondary aging refers to normal age-related
changes
B) Primary aging refers to universal, inevitable biological changes with age; secondary aging refers to
changes caused by disease, lifestyle, or environmental factors
C) Primary aging occurs only in the biological domain; secondary aging occurs only in the psychological
domain
D) Primary aging occurs before age 65; secondary aging occurs after age 65
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Primary aging (also called normative aging) encompasses universal, inevitable changes that
occur with biological aging—such as graying hair, reduced skin elasticity, and slowed processing speed—
regardless of disease or lifestyle. Secondary aging refers to changes resulting from disease, disuse,
lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking, sedentary behaviour), and environmental exposures. This distinction is
important because secondary aging changes are potentially modifiable. Options A, C, and D all contain
factual inaccuracies.
Question 8 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
According to the multiple threshold model, how do individuals respond to age-related changes?
A) All individuals respond identically to aging changes because biological processes are universal
B) Individuals become aware of aging changes only after they cross a personal threshold of significance,
and their identity processes shape their response
C) Thresholds determine the exact age at which each biological change will occur
D) Once a threshold is crossed, individuals inevitably enter a period of identity crisis
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The multiple threshold model proposed by Whitbourne suggests that people become aware
of age-related changes at different points (thresholds) depending on personal relevance (e.g., a musician
notices changes in hearing sooner than a non-musician). Once a threshold is crossed and a person
becomes aware of a change, their identity processes (assimilation, accommodation, or balance)
determine how they respond psychologically. Not all individuals respond the same way (A), thresholds
do not predict exact ages of change (C), and crossing a threshold does not inevitably cause identity crisis
(D).
,Question 9 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
The rectangular survival curve observed in developed nations reflects which phenomenon?
A) A dramatic increase in the maximum human lifespan over the past century
B) Increased compression of morbidity, where more people survive close to the maximum lifespan with
a shorter period of illness before death
C) Exponential growth in the number of centenarians due to genetic advances
D) A uniform pattern of death at all ages, with no concentration at any particular life stage
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The rectangular survival curve (also called "squaring the curve") reflects the reality that, in
developed nations, more people are surviving to old age with fewer premature deaths, so the survival
curve has become increasingly "rectangular"—staying high until near the maximum lifespan, then
dropping sharply. This represents compression of morbidity (Fries, 1980), the idea that the period of
serious illness before death is being compressed into fewer years at the end of life. The maximum
lifespan has not dramatically increased (A). The curve reflects population survival, not uniform death at
all ages (D).
Question 10 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
A 58-year-old executive notices that his face looks older in photographs than he feels internally. He
responds by attributing the change to "just a bad photo" and continues to view himself as youthful.
According to identity process theory, this is an example of:
A) Identity accommodation
B) Identity assimilation
C) Identity balance
D) Ego integrity
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The executive is using identity assimilation—he maintains his existing self-concept (youthful)
by rationalising away or minimising evidence of aging (attributing the aged appearance to the photo,
not to actual change). This protects self-concept but may prevent adaptive responses to real
changes. Identity accommodation would involve changing his self-concept to incorporate the reality of
,looking older. Identity balance would be a healthy, flexible integration. Ego integrity is Erikson's concept
of accepting one's life as it was.
Question 11 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
Which of the following is the BEST example of a non-normative life event?
A) Starting school at age 5–6
B) Retiring around age 65
C) Surviving a tornado that destroys one's home at age 40
D) Experiencing the death of a parent during late adulthood
✅Answer: C
Rationale: Non-normative life events are those that occur unpredictably and are not part of the
expected life course for most people—they are not tied to age or to social expectations. Surviving a
tornado is rare, unexpected, and not age-graded. Normative age-graded events (A, B) occur at
predictable ages according to biological or social norms. Normative history-graded events affect entire
cohorts (e.g., recessions, pandemics). The death of an elderly parent (D) is statistically expected and
therefore normative in late life.
Question 12 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
The term "young-old" as used in gerontology generally refers to:
A) People aged 50–64 who are transitioning from middle age
B) Adults aged approximately 65–74 who are typically healthy, active, and independent
C) Adults aged 75–84 who are beginning to show significant functional decline
D) People over 85 who are considered the oldest segment of the aging population
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Neugarten's classic categorisation divides older adults into young-old (approximately 65–
74), old-old (75–84), and oldest-old (85+). The young-old are generally characterised by relative health,
independence, and continued social engagement. The old-old show increasing health challenges and
functional limitations. The oldest-old (85+) have the highest rates of disability and chronic illness. Option
A describes the "middle-aged" or "pre-retirement" group, not the young-old.
,Question 13 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
A gerontologist argues that because life expectancy has increased dramatically over the past century,
the concept of "old age" beginning at 65 is socially constructed and outdated. Which of the following
concepts from Chapter 1 best supports this argument?
A) The biological clock model, which sets fixed ages for developmental milestones
B) Social clock theory, which recognises that age norms are culturally and historically variable rather
than biologically fixed
C) The maximum lifespan concept, which proves that 65 is the biological threshold for senescence
D) Primary aging theory, which establishes that universal decline begins at exactly age 65
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Social clock theory holds that societies establish age norms for when events "should" occur
(e.g., marriage, retirement, becoming a grandparent). These norms are culturally constructed and
change over time and across cultures. As life expectancy has increased, the social clock norms around
"old age" at 65 have been increasingly questioned—65 was established as the retirement age in the
19th century when life expectancy was far lower. This supports the argument that "old age at 65" is a
social construct, not a biological reality. Neither maximum lifespan nor primary aging establishes 65 as a
biological threshold (C, D).
Question 14 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
Which of the following best illustrates the "gain-loss dynamic" proposed in the lifespan developmental
perspective as applied to a 70-year-old adult?
A) A 70-year-old experiences only losses, including cognitive decline, physical weakness, and social
isolation
B) A 70-year-old has slower processing speed (loss) but demonstrates improved emotional regulation
and wisdom in decision-making (gain)
C) A 70-year-old gains physical strength through exercise but loses psychological resilience as a natural
consequence of aging
D) Gains and losses are equal at every decade of the lifespan, maintaining developmental equilibrium
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The gain-loss dynamic in Baltes' lifespan theory recognises that development at every age
involves both gains and losses, though the balance shifts—with more gains earlier and more losses later.
However, even in late life, gains occur. A 70-year-old may experience processing speed decline (loss)
, while simultaneously gaining in emotional regulation, crystallised wisdom, and prioritisation of
meaningful relationships—as supported by socioemotional selectivity theory and evidence on wisdom.
Option A represents the deficit model. Option C incorrectly states that psychological resilience
necessarily decreases. Option D oversimplifies by claiming equal gains and losses at every decade.
Question 15 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
A 65-year-old woman who has maintained a strong professional identity throughout her career is facing
mandatory retirement. She begins to feel that her life lacks meaning and resists retirement by consulting
work colleagues daily. According to Whitbourne's identity process theory, she is likely experiencing:
A) Identity accommodation leading to adaptive self-revision
B) Identity assimilation, where she maintains her professional identity by minimising or denying the
reality of retirement
C) Identity balance, reflecting a healthy integration of retirement into her self-concept
D) Tertiary aging, reflecting the final phase of identity consolidation in late adulthood
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The woman is using identity assimilation excessively—she is resisting the reality of
retirement and maintaining her professional identity by seeking continued professional contact.
Extreme identity assimilation prevents adjustment and can be maladaptive, as it does not allow the
individual to incorporate meaningful life changes into their self-concept. Identity accommodation would
involve revising her self-concept to embrace new roles in retirement. Identity balance would allow her
to acknowledge the change while preserving core elements of self. Tertiary aging refers to rapid
changes immediately before death—not an identity theory concept.
Question 16 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
The biopsychosocial model emphasises that biological, psychological, and social processes interact
bidirectionally. Which of the following examples BEST illustrates this bidirectional interaction?
A) Chronic loneliness (social) leads to increased cortisol production (biological), which impairs
hippocampal neurogenesis (biological), which worsens memory (psychological), which further reduces
confidence in social interactions (social)
B) Biological aging inevitably determines psychological adjustment, which then shapes social
relationships in a fixed, unidirectional sequence
C) Social support improves psychological well-being, but psychological and social factors cannot reverse
biological aging processes
ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING: BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL
PERPECTIVES
,Table of Contents
Adult Development and Aging
1. Themes and Issues in Adult Development and Aging
2. Models of Development: Nature and Nurture in Adulthood
3. The Study of Adult Development and Aging: Research Methods
4. Physical Changes
5. Health and Prevention
6. Basic Cognitive Functions: Speed, Attention, and Memory
7. Higher-order Cognitive Functions
8. Personality
9. Relationships
10. Work, Retirement, and Leisure Patterns
11. Mental Health Issues and Treatment
12. Long-term Care
13. Death and Dying
14. Successful Aging
,CHAPTER 1: Themes and Issues in Adult Development and Aging
═══════════════════════════════════════
✦ MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (20)
Question 1 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which of the following best defines the term "adult development" as used in the biopsychosocial
framework?
A) The biological changes that occur exclusively after age 65
B) Changes in psychological functioning that occur independently of biological influences
C) The systematic, multidimensional changes in biological, psychological, and social functioning that
occur throughout adulthood
D) A fixed sequence of stages that all adults experience in the same order and at the same time
✅Answer: C
Rationale: Adult development in the biopsychosocial framework refers to systematic, multidimensional
changes across biological, psychological, and social domains throughout adulthood. It is not limited to
late life (eliminating A), does not exclude biological influences (eliminating B), and is not a fixed universal
sequence (eliminating D). The biopsychosocial model emphasises the interaction among these three
domains across the entire adult lifespan.
Question 2 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which term refers to the maximum number of years a member of a species can live?
A) Life expectancy
B) Active life expectancy
C) Longevity
D) Maximum lifespan
✅Answer: D
Rationale: Maximum lifespan refers to the theoretical upper limit of years that members of a species
can survive—approximately 120–125 years for humans. Life expectancy is the average number of years
,a person born in a given year can expect to live based on current mortality rates. Active life
expectancy refers to the years lived free of disability. Longevity is a general term for long life but does
not specifically denote the species maximum.
Question 3 — (Difficulty: Basic)
A researcher studying aging focuses on changes in social roles, relationships, and cultural
expectations as people age. Which domain of the biopsychosocial model does this primarily represent?
A) Biological domain
B) Psychological domain
C) Sociocultural domain
D) Neurocognitive domain
✅Answer: C
Rationale: The sociocultural domain of the biopsychosocial model encompasses social roles, cultural
norms, interpersonal relationships, and societal expectations that influence development across
adulthood. The biological domain covers physiology and genetics; the psychological domain covers
cognition, personality, and emotion. "Neurocognitive" is not one of the three primary biopsychosocial
domains.
Question 4 — (Difficulty: Basic)
Which of the following is the BEST example of ageism?
A) A physician conducting a thorough health assessment of a 75-year-old patient
B) A hiring manager assuming a 68-year-old applicant cannot learn new technology and rejecting her
application
C) A researcher documenting age-related changes in memory performance
D) A community centre offering fitness classes specifically designed for adults over 60
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Ageism involves stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against individuals based on their
age. The hiring manager's assumption that the older applicant cannot learn new technology is a negative
stereotype applied without evidence—the definition of ageism. The physician performing a health
assessment (A) and the researcher documenting changes (C) are professional activities, not
discriminatory. Offering age-appropriate classes (D) is accommodation, not discrimination.
,Question 5 — (Difficulty: Basic)
The concept that aging involves both gains and losses simultaneously is best associated with which
theoretical perspective?
A) The deficit model of aging
B) The biopsychosocial model
C) The lifespan developmental perspective
D) The disease model of aging
✅Answer: C
Rationale: The lifespan developmental perspective (associated with Paul Baltes and colleagues)
explicitly recognises that development across the lifespan involves both gains and losses, and that the
balance of gains to losses shifts across adulthood. It rejects the deficit model (A), which views aging only
as decline. The biopsychosocial model (B) describes domains of influence rather than the gains/losses
concept specifically. The disease model (D) views aging as pathology.
Question 6 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
A 72-year-old retired teacher volunteers to tutor struggling students, takes up painting, and joins a
walking club. According to Whitbourne's identity process theory, which process is most likely operating
when she actively incorporates these new roles into her sense of self?
A) Identity assimilation
B) Identity accommodation
C) Identity balance
D) Identity diffusion
✅Answer: A
Rationale: In identity process theory, identity assimilation occurs when individuals interpret new
experiences in terms of their existing identity. When the teacher incorporates new activities into her
pre-existing self-concept (e.g., "I am a lifelong learner and contributor"), she is assimilating experiences
into her identity. Identity accommodation would occur if she changed her self-concept in response to
experiences. Identity balance involves a healthy equilibrium between the two processes. Identity
diffusion (from Erikson/Marcia) refers to lack of identity commitment—not relevant here.
,Question 7 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
Which of the following correctly distinguishes primary aging from secondary aging?
A) Primary aging refers to disease-related changes; secondary aging refers to normal age-related
changes
B) Primary aging refers to universal, inevitable biological changes with age; secondary aging refers to
changes caused by disease, lifestyle, or environmental factors
C) Primary aging occurs only in the biological domain; secondary aging occurs only in the psychological
domain
D) Primary aging occurs before age 65; secondary aging occurs after age 65
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Primary aging (also called normative aging) encompasses universal, inevitable changes that
occur with biological aging—such as graying hair, reduced skin elasticity, and slowed processing speed—
regardless of disease or lifestyle. Secondary aging refers to changes resulting from disease, disuse,
lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking, sedentary behaviour), and environmental exposures. This distinction is
important because secondary aging changes are potentially modifiable. Options A, C, and D all contain
factual inaccuracies.
Question 8 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
According to the multiple threshold model, how do individuals respond to age-related changes?
A) All individuals respond identically to aging changes because biological processes are universal
B) Individuals become aware of aging changes only after they cross a personal threshold of significance,
and their identity processes shape their response
C) Thresholds determine the exact age at which each biological change will occur
D) Once a threshold is crossed, individuals inevitably enter a period of identity crisis
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The multiple threshold model proposed by Whitbourne suggests that people become aware
of age-related changes at different points (thresholds) depending on personal relevance (e.g., a musician
notices changes in hearing sooner than a non-musician). Once a threshold is crossed and a person
becomes aware of a change, their identity processes (assimilation, accommodation, or balance)
determine how they respond psychologically. Not all individuals respond the same way (A), thresholds
do not predict exact ages of change (C), and crossing a threshold does not inevitably cause identity crisis
(D).
,Question 9 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
The rectangular survival curve observed in developed nations reflects which phenomenon?
A) A dramatic increase in the maximum human lifespan over the past century
B) Increased compression of morbidity, where more people survive close to the maximum lifespan with
a shorter period of illness before death
C) Exponential growth in the number of centenarians due to genetic advances
D) A uniform pattern of death at all ages, with no concentration at any particular life stage
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The rectangular survival curve (also called "squaring the curve") reflects the reality that, in
developed nations, more people are surviving to old age with fewer premature deaths, so the survival
curve has become increasingly "rectangular"—staying high until near the maximum lifespan, then
dropping sharply. This represents compression of morbidity (Fries, 1980), the idea that the period of
serious illness before death is being compressed into fewer years at the end of life. The maximum
lifespan has not dramatically increased (A). The curve reflects population survival, not uniform death at
all ages (D).
Question 10 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
A 58-year-old executive notices that his face looks older in photographs than he feels internally. He
responds by attributing the change to "just a bad photo" and continues to view himself as youthful.
According to identity process theory, this is an example of:
A) Identity accommodation
B) Identity assimilation
C) Identity balance
D) Ego integrity
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The executive is using identity assimilation—he maintains his existing self-concept (youthful)
by rationalising away or minimising evidence of aging (attributing the aged appearance to the photo,
not to actual change). This protects self-concept but may prevent adaptive responses to real
changes. Identity accommodation would involve changing his self-concept to incorporate the reality of
,looking older. Identity balance would be a healthy, flexible integration. Ego integrity is Erikson's concept
of accepting one's life as it was.
Question 11 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
Which of the following is the BEST example of a non-normative life event?
A) Starting school at age 5–6
B) Retiring around age 65
C) Surviving a tornado that destroys one's home at age 40
D) Experiencing the death of a parent during late adulthood
✅Answer: C
Rationale: Non-normative life events are those that occur unpredictably and are not part of the
expected life course for most people—they are not tied to age or to social expectations. Surviving a
tornado is rare, unexpected, and not age-graded. Normative age-graded events (A, B) occur at
predictable ages according to biological or social norms. Normative history-graded events affect entire
cohorts (e.g., recessions, pandemics). The death of an elderly parent (D) is statistically expected and
therefore normative in late life.
Question 12 — (Difficulty: Intermediate)
The term "young-old" as used in gerontology generally refers to:
A) People aged 50–64 who are transitioning from middle age
B) Adults aged approximately 65–74 who are typically healthy, active, and independent
C) Adults aged 75–84 who are beginning to show significant functional decline
D) People over 85 who are considered the oldest segment of the aging population
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Neugarten's classic categorisation divides older adults into young-old (approximately 65–
74), old-old (75–84), and oldest-old (85+). The young-old are generally characterised by relative health,
independence, and continued social engagement. The old-old show increasing health challenges and
functional limitations. The oldest-old (85+) have the highest rates of disability and chronic illness. Option
A describes the "middle-aged" or "pre-retirement" group, not the young-old.
,Question 13 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
A gerontologist argues that because life expectancy has increased dramatically over the past century,
the concept of "old age" beginning at 65 is socially constructed and outdated. Which of the following
concepts from Chapter 1 best supports this argument?
A) The biological clock model, which sets fixed ages for developmental milestones
B) Social clock theory, which recognises that age norms are culturally and historically variable rather
than biologically fixed
C) The maximum lifespan concept, which proves that 65 is the biological threshold for senescence
D) Primary aging theory, which establishes that universal decline begins at exactly age 65
✅Answer: B
Rationale: Social clock theory holds that societies establish age norms for when events "should" occur
(e.g., marriage, retirement, becoming a grandparent). These norms are culturally constructed and
change over time and across cultures. As life expectancy has increased, the social clock norms around
"old age" at 65 have been increasingly questioned—65 was established as the retirement age in the
19th century when life expectancy was far lower. This supports the argument that "old age at 65" is a
social construct, not a biological reality. Neither maximum lifespan nor primary aging establishes 65 as a
biological threshold (C, D).
Question 14 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
Which of the following best illustrates the "gain-loss dynamic" proposed in the lifespan developmental
perspective as applied to a 70-year-old adult?
A) A 70-year-old experiences only losses, including cognitive decline, physical weakness, and social
isolation
B) A 70-year-old has slower processing speed (loss) but demonstrates improved emotional regulation
and wisdom in decision-making (gain)
C) A 70-year-old gains physical strength through exercise but loses psychological resilience as a natural
consequence of aging
D) Gains and losses are equal at every decade of the lifespan, maintaining developmental equilibrium
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The gain-loss dynamic in Baltes' lifespan theory recognises that development at every age
involves both gains and losses, though the balance shifts—with more gains earlier and more losses later.
However, even in late life, gains occur. A 70-year-old may experience processing speed decline (loss)
, while simultaneously gaining in emotional regulation, crystallised wisdom, and prioritisation of
meaningful relationships—as supported by socioemotional selectivity theory and evidence on wisdom.
Option A represents the deficit model. Option C incorrectly states that psychological resilience
necessarily decreases. Option D oversimplifies by claiming equal gains and losses at every decade.
Question 15 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
A 65-year-old woman who has maintained a strong professional identity throughout her career is facing
mandatory retirement. She begins to feel that her life lacks meaning and resists retirement by consulting
work colleagues daily. According to Whitbourne's identity process theory, she is likely experiencing:
A) Identity accommodation leading to adaptive self-revision
B) Identity assimilation, where she maintains her professional identity by minimising or denying the
reality of retirement
C) Identity balance, reflecting a healthy integration of retirement into her self-concept
D) Tertiary aging, reflecting the final phase of identity consolidation in late adulthood
✅Answer: B
Rationale: The woman is using identity assimilation excessively—she is resisting the reality of
retirement and maintaining her professional identity by seeking continued professional contact.
Extreme identity assimilation prevents adjustment and can be maladaptive, as it does not allow the
individual to incorporate meaningful life changes into their self-concept. Identity accommodation would
involve revising her self-concept to embrace new roles in retirement. Identity balance would allow her
to acknowledge the change while preserving core elements of self. Tertiary aging refers to rapid
changes immediately before death—not an identity theory concept.
Question 16 — (Difficulty: Advanced)
The biopsychosocial model emphasises that biological, psychological, and social processes interact
bidirectionally. Which of the following examples BEST illustrates this bidirectional interaction?
A) Chronic loneliness (social) leads to increased cortisol production (biological), which impairs
hippocampal neurogenesis (biological), which worsens memory (psychological), which further reduces
confidence in social interactions (social)
B) Biological aging inevitably determines psychological adjustment, which then shapes social
relationships in a fixed, unidirectional sequence
C) Social support improves psychological well-being, but psychological and social factors cannot reverse
biological aging processes
