epidemiology Final Exam Study Guide
2026/2027
⭐ Accurate Questions with Correct Detailed Solutions |
Newest Updated Version | High Pass Success
Prepare with confidence using this comprehensive Final Exam Study Guide 2026/2027,
designed to help students review important concepts, strengthen understanding, and improve
overall exam performance.
This resource includes accurate exam-style questions with correct detailed solutions,
carefully structured to reflect commonly tested topics and current exam standards. Each solution
is clearly explained to help students understand the reasoning behind every answer, reinforce
learning, and improve problem-solving skills.
Whether you are preparing weeks in advance or doing last-minute revision, this guide provides a
simple, organized, and exam-focused approach to studying smarter and achieving better
results.
🔥 Key Highlights
✔ Accurate exam questions covering essential topics
✔ Correct detailed solutions with clear explanations
✔ Focused review of commonly tested concepts
✔ Newest updated version (2026/2027)
✔ Easy-to-follow format for quick and effective revision
🚀 Why This Study Guide Is Effective
• Helps strengthen understanding of key concepts
• Supports fast and efficient revision
• Improves confidence before exams
• Enhances problem-solving and test-taking skills
• Provides realistic exam-style practice
,🎯 Ideal For
• Final exam preparation
• Midterm and course revision
• Practicing exam-style questions
• Last-minute study sessions
• Improving overall academic performance
📚 A trusted and practical study resource designed to help students prepare effectively,
build confidence, and achieve exam success.
cumulative incidence - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅new cases during observation period /
population at risk at beginning of observation
*direct measure of risk of disease*
incidence rate - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅The rate at which new cases develop in a
population at risk during the period of observation
new cases during observation period/person-time at risk during observation
OR case-control - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅odds of exposure among cases/odds of exposure
among controls
sensitivity - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅TP/TP+FN
proportion of true positives to people who have the disease
specificity - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅TN/TN+FN
proportion of true negatives to all people who don't have the disease
when to be concerned about confounding - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅When there are multiple
causal pathways for a disease
When we want to determine if an intervention is effective
When we want to be certain an exposure-disease association is really due to exp (nota
different risk factor)
,Control for confounding in Design phase - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1) Restrict study to
persons who are only in one stratum of the confounder
2) Match exposed and non-exposed persons on confounder
3) Randomize subject to the exposed & non-exposed categories
Control for confounding in ANALYSIS phase - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1) Stratify exposed
and unexposed
2) Perform multivariable analysis (Disease modeled as a function of exposure and
potential confounders)
why might confounding still be present - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1. unkown confounding
2. residual confounding: one or more confounders are poorly measured and analysis
will leave some. --> improving measurement would help eliminate this source
mediatiors - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅mediation occurs when the measured association
between the exposure and the outcome is mediated by one or more risk factors
Effect Modification - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅occurs when measured association between
exposure and outcome varies by levels of another factor. involves examining exposure-
disease relationship across different strata of third variable.
ex: gender
confounding vs effect modification - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅C: exposure-disease
association is homogenous across levels of strata of third variable
EM: exp-dz association is heterogeneous across levels of strata of third variable
homogeneity test - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅Breslow-Day test
rejecting null hyp of homogeneity: associations are not homogenous and the estimates
should not be combined.
failing to reject the null hypothesis: indicates that the associations are homogenous
interpreting odds ratio - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅OR = 1 The estimated disease (dz) risk is
the same for exposed and nonexposed
OR > 1 The estimated disease risk is greater for exposed than nonexposed
OR < 1 Exposure protects against disease occurrence (or exp. reduces dz risk)
Cohort Study - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅prospective or retrospective
main risk factor measred before Dz occured
provides stronger evidence for causality
Cohort Study ADV - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅temporality clear, can cope with rare exposures,
multiple outcomes can be studied, disease incidence is measured
, Cohort study DIS - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅high costs, long time period, losses to follow-up,
detection of ideas can be related to the knowledge of exposure status, causality not
proven
Bradford Hill Criteria for Causality - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1. strength of association
2. specificity
3. temporality
4. dose-response
5. consistency across studies
6. biological plausability
7. experimental evidence
prevention - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅primary: aims to prevent dz from ocurring (results in
decrease in incidence and prevalance) ex: behavioral changes, vaccines
secondary: detects diease before indiv starts having symptoms
tertiary: targets person who already has symptoms (aims at preventing complications)
STRATA - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅demographics, baseline lab, physiological variables (ex:
hypertension), clinical characteristics
RCT three e's - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅Efficacy: extent to which beneficial result occurs
under ideal conditions
Efficiency: extent to which beneficial result occurs under actual conditions
Effectiveness: extent to which the resources used to provide intervention can be
minimized
Systematic Reviews Purpose - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅• Demonstrate feasibility of a
treatment or intervention • Implement new research findings to clinical practice • Apply
for research funding (grants) • Suggesting a new direction for research • Establish
clinical performance • Determine cost-effectiveness
Cultural Awareness -ANSWER✅✅✅:Self-examination of one's own prejudices and
biases toward other cultures. An in-depth exploration of one's own cultural/ethnic
background.
Cultural competence in nursing consists of four principles. -ANSWER✅✅✅Care is
designed for the specific client.
Care is based on the uniqueness of the person's culture and includes cultural norms
and values.
Care includes self-employment strategies to facilitate client decision making to improve
health behaviors.
Care is provided with sensitivity and is based on the cultural uniqueness of clients.
2026/2027
⭐ Accurate Questions with Correct Detailed Solutions |
Newest Updated Version | High Pass Success
Prepare with confidence using this comprehensive Final Exam Study Guide 2026/2027,
designed to help students review important concepts, strengthen understanding, and improve
overall exam performance.
This resource includes accurate exam-style questions with correct detailed solutions,
carefully structured to reflect commonly tested topics and current exam standards. Each solution
is clearly explained to help students understand the reasoning behind every answer, reinforce
learning, and improve problem-solving skills.
Whether you are preparing weeks in advance or doing last-minute revision, this guide provides a
simple, organized, and exam-focused approach to studying smarter and achieving better
results.
🔥 Key Highlights
✔ Accurate exam questions covering essential topics
✔ Correct detailed solutions with clear explanations
✔ Focused review of commonly tested concepts
✔ Newest updated version (2026/2027)
✔ Easy-to-follow format for quick and effective revision
🚀 Why This Study Guide Is Effective
• Helps strengthen understanding of key concepts
• Supports fast and efficient revision
• Improves confidence before exams
• Enhances problem-solving and test-taking skills
• Provides realistic exam-style practice
,🎯 Ideal For
• Final exam preparation
• Midterm and course revision
• Practicing exam-style questions
• Last-minute study sessions
• Improving overall academic performance
📚 A trusted and practical study resource designed to help students prepare effectively,
build confidence, and achieve exam success.
cumulative incidence - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅new cases during observation period /
population at risk at beginning of observation
*direct measure of risk of disease*
incidence rate - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅The rate at which new cases develop in a
population at risk during the period of observation
new cases during observation period/person-time at risk during observation
OR case-control - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅odds of exposure among cases/odds of exposure
among controls
sensitivity - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅TP/TP+FN
proportion of true positives to people who have the disease
specificity - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅TN/TN+FN
proportion of true negatives to all people who don't have the disease
when to be concerned about confounding - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅When there are multiple
causal pathways for a disease
When we want to determine if an intervention is effective
When we want to be certain an exposure-disease association is really due to exp (nota
different risk factor)
,Control for confounding in Design phase - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1) Restrict study to
persons who are only in one stratum of the confounder
2) Match exposed and non-exposed persons on confounder
3) Randomize subject to the exposed & non-exposed categories
Control for confounding in ANALYSIS phase - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1) Stratify exposed
and unexposed
2) Perform multivariable analysis (Disease modeled as a function of exposure and
potential confounders)
why might confounding still be present - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1. unkown confounding
2. residual confounding: one or more confounders are poorly measured and analysis
will leave some. --> improving measurement would help eliminate this source
mediatiors - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅mediation occurs when the measured association
between the exposure and the outcome is mediated by one or more risk factors
Effect Modification - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅occurs when measured association between
exposure and outcome varies by levels of another factor. involves examining exposure-
disease relationship across different strata of third variable.
ex: gender
confounding vs effect modification - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅C: exposure-disease
association is homogenous across levels of strata of third variable
EM: exp-dz association is heterogeneous across levels of strata of third variable
homogeneity test - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅Breslow-Day test
rejecting null hyp of homogeneity: associations are not homogenous and the estimates
should not be combined.
failing to reject the null hypothesis: indicates that the associations are homogenous
interpreting odds ratio - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅OR = 1 The estimated disease (dz) risk is
the same for exposed and nonexposed
OR > 1 The estimated disease risk is greater for exposed than nonexposed
OR < 1 Exposure protects against disease occurrence (or exp. reduces dz risk)
Cohort Study - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅prospective or retrospective
main risk factor measred before Dz occured
provides stronger evidence for causality
Cohort Study ADV - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅temporality clear, can cope with rare exposures,
multiple outcomes can be studied, disease incidence is measured
, Cohort study DIS - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅high costs, long time period, losses to follow-up,
detection of ideas can be related to the knowledge of exposure status, causality not
proven
Bradford Hill Criteria for Causality - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅1. strength of association
2. specificity
3. temporality
4. dose-response
5. consistency across studies
6. biological plausability
7. experimental evidence
prevention - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅primary: aims to prevent dz from ocurring (results in
decrease in incidence and prevalance) ex: behavioral changes, vaccines
secondary: detects diease before indiv starts having symptoms
tertiary: targets person who already has symptoms (aims at preventing complications)
STRATA - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅demographics, baseline lab, physiological variables (ex:
hypertension), clinical characteristics
RCT three e's - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅Efficacy: extent to which beneficial result occurs
under ideal conditions
Efficiency: extent to which beneficial result occurs under actual conditions
Effectiveness: extent to which the resources used to provide intervention can be
minimized
Systematic Reviews Purpose - ANSWER ✅✅✅✅• Demonstrate feasibility of a
treatment or intervention • Implement new research findings to clinical practice • Apply
for research funding (grants) • Suggesting a new direction for research • Establish
clinical performance • Determine cost-effectiveness
Cultural Awareness -ANSWER✅✅✅:Self-examination of one's own prejudices and
biases toward other cultures. An in-depth exploration of one's own cultural/ethnic
background.
Cultural competence in nursing consists of four principles. -ANSWER✅✅✅Care is
designed for the specific client.
Care is based on the uniqueness of the person's culture and includes cultural norms
and values.
Care includes self-employment strategies to facilitate client decision making to improve
health behaviors.
Care is provided with sensitivity and is based on the cultural uniqueness of clients.
