Study Guide for Exam 4
Gregory Kohn
General Developmental Theory
What is an open system, what distinguishes it from a closed system?
● Open system: A system that interacts dynamically with its environment by exchanging energy,
matter, or information. It is flexible, adaptable, and influenced by external inputs
● Closed system: A system that is isolated from the environment with little or no exchange of
energy, matter, or information. It tends to be fixed, predictable, and self-contained
What is autopoiesis?
● It is the process by which a system produces and maintains itself by continuously regenerating
and organizing its own components
What is an ontogenetic niche? How does the ontogenetic niche push development forward
● The ontogenetic niche refers to the specific set of environmental conditions, resources, and social
settings an organism experiences throughout its development
● It shapes and scaffolds development by providing relevant stimuli and experiences that guide
how an organism’s traits and behaviors emerge
What is the nativist approach to development, and what is a genetic program?
● The nativist approach emphasizes that many aspects of development are innate or biologically
pre-determined, controlled by genetic factors rather than being learned from the environment
● A genetic program is a metaphor for the set of instructions encoded in an organism’s DNA that
directs its developmental processes
Know the example of the genetically identical mice we discussed in class
● The classic example: Genetically identical mice raised in different environments show differences
in behavior and brain structure despite having the same genes
What is it called when shown when animals have the proper response to a stimulus the first time they
encounter it?
● This is called a “species-specific behavior” or more specifically a “species-typical response”
● Sometimes also referred to as an “unlearned” or “innate” response
● In experimental terms, showing the correct response on the first encounter can be evidence of a
fixed action pattern (FAP) or instinct
Know the examples of non-obvious experiences on species typical behavior we discussed
● Chicks and toes:
○ Example: Chicks develop species-typical pecking behavior not only through direct
observation but also through sensorimotor experience with their own toes → When
chicks experience moving and feeling their toes, it shapes how they coordinate pecking
at objects later
● Monkeys
○ Example: In experiments with monkeys (e.g., Harlow’s work), infant monkeys raised
without normal social contact showed abnormalities in social behavior
● Snakes and insects
○ Example: Some snakes raised without exposure to certain prey (like insects) may not
show the typical hunting or feeding behavior toward those prey
What is the probabilistic Epigenetic model of development?
, ● This model emphasizes that development is not predetermined by genes alone, but is the result
of probabilistic interactions between genes, environment, and experience over time
Who is T.C. Schneirla and G. Gottlieb?
● Gottlieb: Famous for studies on prenatal auditory experience and imprinting in birds,
demonstrating experience-dependent development
● Schneirla: He emphasized bidirectional influences between organisms and environments
What is induction, facilitation, malleability, canalization and maintenance?
● Induction: When one developmental process or structure initiates or causes the development of
another
○ Example: A part of an embryo producing signals that guide the formation of another
organ
● Facilitation: When an experience or process makes a developmental outcome easier or more
likely, but is not strictly necessary for it
○ Example: Exposure to light facilitating normal visual system development
○
● Malleability: The capacity of an organism or trait to be shaped or altered by experience or
environment during development
○ High malleability means more developmental flexibility
● Canalization: The tendency for development to follow a specific trajectory despite variations in
environment or genetics, resulting in consistent outcomes
○ It’s like a “developmental canal” that guides traits to develop reliably
● Maintenance: The processes by which developed traits or behaviors are preserved or stabilized
over time after they have emerged
○ Maintenance ensures continuity and stability in function or structure
Pre-natal influence on behavior
Know how wood ducklings come to learn their mother maternal call, what is the descending call, what
is the role of the siblings?
● Before Hatching:
○ Duck embryos hear:
■ The mother’s descending call
■ Their siblings vocalizing inside the eggs
■ Sibling calls actually form the most important part of the learning environment
● Ducklings learn the maternal call primarily through exposure to their
siblings
● The siblings’ calls gradually match and broadcast the mother's
descending call pattern
● Embryos learn what the correct sound is by: Hearing siblings repeat
and amplify that pattern
○ Ducklings isolated from siblings were poorer at recognizing the maternal call
○ Ducklings exposed to siblings more accurately followed the mother after hatching
What is imprinting? How was it first investigated by Douglas Spalding? What is an isolation experiment,
following reaction, fear reaction?
● A rapid, early learning process that occurs during a sensitive period, forming a lasting attachment
✅
to a specific stimulus (usually the mother)
● Isolation Experiments
○ Infant birds were raised:
Gregory Kohn
General Developmental Theory
What is an open system, what distinguishes it from a closed system?
● Open system: A system that interacts dynamically with its environment by exchanging energy,
matter, or information. It is flexible, adaptable, and influenced by external inputs
● Closed system: A system that is isolated from the environment with little or no exchange of
energy, matter, or information. It tends to be fixed, predictable, and self-contained
What is autopoiesis?
● It is the process by which a system produces and maintains itself by continuously regenerating
and organizing its own components
What is an ontogenetic niche? How does the ontogenetic niche push development forward
● The ontogenetic niche refers to the specific set of environmental conditions, resources, and social
settings an organism experiences throughout its development
● It shapes and scaffolds development by providing relevant stimuli and experiences that guide
how an organism’s traits and behaviors emerge
What is the nativist approach to development, and what is a genetic program?
● The nativist approach emphasizes that many aspects of development are innate or biologically
pre-determined, controlled by genetic factors rather than being learned from the environment
● A genetic program is a metaphor for the set of instructions encoded in an organism’s DNA that
directs its developmental processes
Know the example of the genetically identical mice we discussed in class
● The classic example: Genetically identical mice raised in different environments show differences
in behavior and brain structure despite having the same genes
What is it called when shown when animals have the proper response to a stimulus the first time they
encounter it?
● This is called a “species-specific behavior” or more specifically a “species-typical response”
● Sometimes also referred to as an “unlearned” or “innate” response
● In experimental terms, showing the correct response on the first encounter can be evidence of a
fixed action pattern (FAP) or instinct
Know the examples of non-obvious experiences on species typical behavior we discussed
● Chicks and toes:
○ Example: Chicks develop species-typical pecking behavior not only through direct
observation but also through sensorimotor experience with their own toes → When
chicks experience moving and feeling their toes, it shapes how they coordinate pecking
at objects later
● Monkeys
○ Example: In experiments with monkeys (e.g., Harlow’s work), infant monkeys raised
without normal social contact showed abnormalities in social behavior
● Snakes and insects
○ Example: Some snakes raised without exposure to certain prey (like insects) may not
show the typical hunting or feeding behavior toward those prey
What is the probabilistic Epigenetic model of development?
, ● This model emphasizes that development is not predetermined by genes alone, but is the result
of probabilistic interactions between genes, environment, and experience over time
Who is T.C. Schneirla and G. Gottlieb?
● Gottlieb: Famous for studies on prenatal auditory experience and imprinting in birds,
demonstrating experience-dependent development
● Schneirla: He emphasized bidirectional influences between organisms and environments
What is induction, facilitation, malleability, canalization and maintenance?
● Induction: When one developmental process or structure initiates or causes the development of
another
○ Example: A part of an embryo producing signals that guide the formation of another
organ
● Facilitation: When an experience or process makes a developmental outcome easier or more
likely, but is not strictly necessary for it
○ Example: Exposure to light facilitating normal visual system development
○
● Malleability: The capacity of an organism or trait to be shaped or altered by experience or
environment during development
○ High malleability means more developmental flexibility
● Canalization: The tendency for development to follow a specific trajectory despite variations in
environment or genetics, resulting in consistent outcomes
○ It’s like a “developmental canal” that guides traits to develop reliably
● Maintenance: The processes by which developed traits or behaviors are preserved or stabilized
over time after they have emerged
○ Maintenance ensures continuity and stability in function or structure
Pre-natal influence on behavior
Know how wood ducklings come to learn their mother maternal call, what is the descending call, what
is the role of the siblings?
● Before Hatching:
○ Duck embryos hear:
■ The mother’s descending call
■ Their siblings vocalizing inside the eggs
■ Sibling calls actually form the most important part of the learning environment
● Ducklings learn the maternal call primarily through exposure to their
siblings
● The siblings’ calls gradually match and broadcast the mother's
descending call pattern
● Embryos learn what the correct sound is by: Hearing siblings repeat
and amplify that pattern
○ Ducklings isolated from siblings were poorer at recognizing the maternal call
○ Ducklings exposed to siblings more accurately followed the mother after hatching
What is imprinting? How was it first investigated by Douglas Spalding? What is an isolation experiment,
following reaction, fear reaction?
● A rapid, early learning process that occurs during a sensitive period, forming a lasting attachment
✅
to a specific stimulus (usually the mother)
● Isolation Experiments
○ Infant birds were raised:
