BIOL 241: Human Anatomy &
Physiology 1 ( Winter 2026)–
Complete Study Guide & Verified
Answers (Grade A+)
Where is DNA located in a prokaryotic cell?
In the nucleoid
Do prokaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles?
No
What components are found in the nucleoid of E. coli?
DNA, proteins, and RNA
What are four examples of inclusion bodies found in the E. coli cytoplasm?
Carbon storage granules, sulfur globules, carboxysomes, and gas vesicles
What is the function of magnetosomes in bacteria?
Orientation via a magnetic field
What is the typical size range of Archaea?
0.5-5 μm
How is the DNA of Archaea organized?
Circular chromosome
What is an exception to the typical size of bacteria?
Thiomargarita magnifica, a giant bacterium visible to the naked eye.
How does Thiomargarita magnifica overcome diffusion limits despite its large size?
It possesses a large vacuole that reduces its metabolic volume.
What are the two main groups of prokaryotes?
Bacteria and Archaea
What feature do Archaea share with Eukaryotes regarding DNA?
DNA is associated with histones
What type of chemical linkage is found in Archaea membrane lipids?
Ether linkages
What are the lipid chains in Archaea membranes composed of?
Isoprenoid chains
Name three key organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
Three key organelles found in eukaryotic cells are mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), and the Golgi apparatus.
What is the core concept of the endosymbiotic theory?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed bacteria.
What evidence suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria based
on their physical structure?
They are similar in size and shape to bacteria.
What structural feature of mitochondria and chloroplast membranes supports the
endosymbiotic theory?
,They possess a double membrane.
What genetic evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding the DNA of
mitochondria and chloroplasts?
They contain their own circular DNA.
What cellular machinery do mitochondria and chloroplasts possess that supports the
endosymbiotic theory?
They have their own ribosomes and transcription machinery.
Chemoorganoheterotroph
Energy: chemicals, Electrons: organic, Carbon: organic, Example: humans, many bacteria
Chemolithoautotroph
Energy: chemicals, Electrons: inorganic, Carbon: inorganic, Example: Sulfur oxidizers, Iron
oxidizers, Nitrifying bacteria, Methanogens
Photolithoautotroph
Energy: light, Electrons: inorganic (water), Carbon: CO₂, Example: Cyanobacteria, Plants
Photoorganoheterotroph
Others (less common)
Chemolithoheterotroph
Others (less common)
Photoorganoautotroph
Others (less common)
Photolithoheterotroph
Others (less common)
What is the metabolic classification of humans?
Humans are chemoorganoheterotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from the oxidation of
organic compounds and carbon from organic sources.
What is the metabolic classification of Anammox bacteria?
Anammox bacteria are chemolithoautotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from the oxidation of
inorganic compounds and carbon from carbon dioxide.
What is the metabolic classification of plants?
Plants are photolithoautotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from light and carbon from carbon
dioxide using inorganic electron donors like water.
Define chemoorganoheterotroph
An organism that obtains energy from the oxidation of organic compounds and requires organic
carbon as its carbon source.
Define chemolithoautotroph
An organism that obtains energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds and uses carbon
dioxide as its primary carbon source.
Define photolithoautotroph
An organism that uses light as an energy source and inorganic compounds as electron donors to
fix carbon dioxide into organic matter.
What is Microbiology?
The study of microbes, which are microscopic life forms, and their interactions with humans,
food, and the environment.
What are examples of beneficial microbial interactions?
Beneficial interactions include processes like digestion, where microbes assist in breaking down
food and absorbing nutrients.
,What are examples of harmful microbial interactions?
Harmful interactions include the development of diseases, such as the destruction of red blood
cells by certain pathogenic microbes.
What is Microbial Ecology?
Also known as Environmental Microbiology, it is the study of the complex interactions between
microbes, other living organisms, and their non-living environment.
What are the three primary areas of interaction for microbes mentioned in microbiology?
Microbes interact primarily with humans, food sources, and the surrounding environment.
What are the main types of microbes?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes (microeukaryotes), and Viruses.
Are viruses considered living organisms?
No, they are considered acellular and not living.
What is the typical size range of bacteria?
Approximately 0.5-5 μm.
What is the typical size of eukaryotic cells?
Greater than 5 μm.
What are the two possible structural forms of Archaea membrane lipids?
Bilayer or monolayer
What is the primary component of the Archaea cell wall?
Pseudomurein (pseudopeptidoglycan)
How does the Archaea flagella growth differ from Bacteria?
Archaea flagella grow from the base, whereas Bacteria flagella grow from the tip
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation (SLP)
Direct phosphate transfer → ATP
Where does Substrate-Level Phosphorylation occur?
Occurs in glycolysis
What is the net ATP yield of Substrate-Level Phosphorylation?
Net: 2 ATP
What is the limitation of Substrate-Level Phosphorylation?
NAD⁺ gets depleted → must be recycled
Photophosphorylation
Uses light energy
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Uses: Electron transport chain, Proton motive force
What is the primary function of fermentation in cellular metabolism?
Fermentation functions to regenerate NAD+ from NADH, which allows glycolysis to continue
producing ATP in the absence of an electron transport chain.
What are the key characteristics of fermentation?
Fermentation does not use an electron transport chain, utilizes an organic molecule as the final
electron acceptor, and results in a low ATP yield.
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?
Oxygen (O2) is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, which facilitates the highest
ATP yield.
What are common final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration?
Common final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration include nitrate and sulfate.
How does the ATP yield of anaerobic respiration compare to aerobic respiration?
, Anaerobic respiration produces less ATP than aerobic respiration because it uses electron
acceptors with lower reduction potentials than oxygen.
Individual
one organism
Population
same species in same place
Community
multiple populations
Ecosystem
community + environment
Guild
organisms with similar metabolism
Niche
organism's role
Oxygenic
Produce O₂
Cyanobacteria
Example: cyanobacteria
Anoxygenic
Do NOT produce O₂
Anoxygenic electron donors
Use other electron donors (e.g., H₂S)
Anaerobic
does NOT use O₂
Anoxygenic definition
does NOT produce O₂
Symbiosis
A long-term biological interaction between two different organisms living in close physical
association.
Parasitism
A relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of the other, typically causing harm.
Commensalism
A relationship where one organism benefits while the other remains unaffected.
Mutualism
A relationship where both participating organisms derive a benefit.
Positive-Negative Interaction
The classification of a relationship where one party gains fitness while the other suffers a loss.
Positive-Neutral Interaction
The classification of a relationship where one party gains fitness while the other experiences no
significant effect.
Positive-Positive Interaction
The classification of a relationship where both parties experience an increase in fitness.
BIOFILMS
Microbial communities attached to surfaces
What holds biofilms together?
EPS (extracellular polysaccharides)
Physiology 1 ( Winter 2026)–
Complete Study Guide & Verified
Answers (Grade A+)
Where is DNA located in a prokaryotic cell?
In the nucleoid
Do prokaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles?
No
What components are found in the nucleoid of E. coli?
DNA, proteins, and RNA
What are four examples of inclusion bodies found in the E. coli cytoplasm?
Carbon storage granules, sulfur globules, carboxysomes, and gas vesicles
What is the function of magnetosomes in bacteria?
Orientation via a magnetic field
What is the typical size range of Archaea?
0.5-5 μm
How is the DNA of Archaea organized?
Circular chromosome
What is an exception to the typical size of bacteria?
Thiomargarita magnifica, a giant bacterium visible to the naked eye.
How does Thiomargarita magnifica overcome diffusion limits despite its large size?
It possesses a large vacuole that reduces its metabolic volume.
What are the two main groups of prokaryotes?
Bacteria and Archaea
What feature do Archaea share with Eukaryotes regarding DNA?
DNA is associated with histones
What type of chemical linkage is found in Archaea membrane lipids?
Ether linkages
What are the lipid chains in Archaea membranes composed of?
Isoprenoid chains
Name three key organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
Three key organelles found in eukaryotic cells are mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), and the Golgi apparatus.
What is the core concept of the endosymbiotic theory?
Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from engulfed bacteria.
What evidence suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from bacteria based
on their physical structure?
They are similar in size and shape to bacteria.
What structural feature of mitochondria and chloroplast membranes supports the
endosymbiotic theory?
,They possess a double membrane.
What genetic evidence supports the endosymbiotic theory regarding the DNA of
mitochondria and chloroplasts?
They contain their own circular DNA.
What cellular machinery do mitochondria and chloroplasts possess that supports the
endosymbiotic theory?
They have their own ribosomes and transcription machinery.
Chemoorganoheterotroph
Energy: chemicals, Electrons: organic, Carbon: organic, Example: humans, many bacteria
Chemolithoautotroph
Energy: chemicals, Electrons: inorganic, Carbon: inorganic, Example: Sulfur oxidizers, Iron
oxidizers, Nitrifying bacteria, Methanogens
Photolithoautotroph
Energy: light, Electrons: inorganic (water), Carbon: CO₂, Example: Cyanobacteria, Plants
Photoorganoheterotroph
Others (less common)
Chemolithoheterotroph
Others (less common)
Photoorganoautotroph
Others (less common)
Photolithoheterotroph
Others (less common)
What is the metabolic classification of humans?
Humans are chemoorganoheterotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from the oxidation of
organic compounds and carbon from organic sources.
What is the metabolic classification of Anammox bacteria?
Anammox bacteria are chemolithoautotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from the oxidation of
inorganic compounds and carbon from carbon dioxide.
What is the metabolic classification of plants?
Plants are photolithoautotrophs, meaning they obtain energy from light and carbon from carbon
dioxide using inorganic electron donors like water.
Define chemoorganoheterotroph
An organism that obtains energy from the oxidation of organic compounds and requires organic
carbon as its carbon source.
Define chemolithoautotroph
An organism that obtains energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds and uses carbon
dioxide as its primary carbon source.
Define photolithoautotroph
An organism that uses light as an energy source and inorganic compounds as electron donors to
fix carbon dioxide into organic matter.
What is Microbiology?
The study of microbes, which are microscopic life forms, and their interactions with humans,
food, and the environment.
What are examples of beneficial microbial interactions?
Beneficial interactions include processes like digestion, where microbes assist in breaking down
food and absorbing nutrients.
,What are examples of harmful microbial interactions?
Harmful interactions include the development of diseases, such as the destruction of red blood
cells by certain pathogenic microbes.
What is Microbial Ecology?
Also known as Environmental Microbiology, it is the study of the complex interactions between
microbes, other living organisms, and their non-living environment.
What are the three primary areas of interaction for microbes mentioned in microbiology?
Microbes interact primarily with humans, food sources, and the surrounding environment.
What are the main types of microbes?
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukaryotes (microeukaryotes), and Viruses.
Are viruses considered living organisms?
No, they are considered acellular and not living.
What is the typical size range of bacteria?
Approximately 0.5-5 μm.
What is the typical size of eukaryotic cells?
Greater than 5 μm.
What are the two possible structural forms of Archaea membrane lipids?
Bilayer or monolayer
What is the primary component of the Archaea cell wall?
Pseudomurein (pseudopeptidoglycan)
How does the Archaea flagella growth differ from Bacteria?
Archaea flagella grow from the base, whereas Bacteria flagella grow from the tip
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation (SLP)
Direct phosphate transfer → ATP
Where does Substrate-Level Phosphorylation occur?
Occurs in glycolysis
What is the net ATP yield of Substrate-Level Phosphorylation?
Net: 2 ATP
What is the limitation of Substrate-Level Phosphorylation?
NAD⁺ gets depleted → must be recycled
Photophosphorylation
Uses light energy
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Uses: Electron transport chain, Proton motive force
What is the primary function of fermentation in cellular metabolism?
Fermentation functions to regenerate NAD+ from NADH, which allows glycolysis to continue
producing ATP in the absence of an electron transport chain.
What are the key characteristics of fermentation?
Fermentation does not use an electron transport chain, utilizes an organic molecule as the final
electron acceptor, and results in a low ATP yield.
What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?
Oxygen (O2) is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, which facilitates the highest
ATP yield.
What are common final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration?
Common final electron acceptors in anaerobic respiration include nitrate and sulfate.
How does the ATP yield of anaerobic respiration compare to aerobic respiration?
, Anaerobic respiration produces less ATP than aerobic respiration because it uses electron
acceptors with lower reduction potentials than oxygen.
Individual
one organism
Population
same species in same place
Community
multiple populations
Ecosystem
community + environment
Guild
organisms with similar metabolism
Niche
organism's role
Oxygenic
Produce O₂
Cyanobacteria
Example: cyanobacteria
Anoxygenic
Do NOT produce O₂
Anoxygenic electron donors
Use other electron donors (e.g., H₂S)
Anaerobic
does NOT use O₂
Anoxygenic definition
does NOT produce O₂
Symbiosis
A long-term biological interaction between two different organisms living in close physical
association.
Parasitism
A relationship where one organism benefits at the expense of the other, typically causing harm.
Commensalism
A relationship where one organism benefits while the other remains unaffected.
Mutualism
A relationship where both participating organisms derive a benefit.
Positive-Negative Interaction
The classification of a relationship where one party gains fitness while the other suffers a loss.
Positive-Neutral Interaction
The classification of a relationship where one party gains fitness while the other experiences no
significant effect.
Positive-Positive Interaction
The classification of a relationship where both parties experience an increase in fitness.
BIOFILMS
Microbial communities attached to surfaces
What holds biofilms together?
EPS (extracellular polysaccharides)
