Landscape systems, processes and change 1 of 27
Enquiry question 1: Why are coastal landscapes different and what processes cause these
differences?
Key words:
Littoral zone- the boundary between land and sea which stretches out into the sea and onto the
shore.
Backshore- area above high tide level and only affected by exceptionally high tides.
Foreshore- land where most wave processes occur, inter-tidal or surf zone.
Nearshore- shallow water areas close to land.
Offshore- the open sea.
Breakpoint bar- zone of breaking waves.
Subaerial processes- including weathering processes (mechanical, chemical and biological),
mass movement processes (landslides, rock falls) and surface runoff erosion.
Submergent coastline- when a rise in sea level floods a previously exposed coast.
Emergent coastline- when a fall in sea level exposes land previously covered by the sea.
Cliff profile- the shape and characteristics of a cliff, often viewed as a cross section.
Coastal morphology- the shape and form of coastal landscapes and their features.
Accretion- refers to the deposition of sediment at a coast that expands the area of land.
Joint- (vertical cracks) caused by either a contraction of sediment as it drys out or by earth
movements during uplift.
Bedding plane- (horizontal crack) caused by gaps in time periods of rock formation.
Wave refraction- is the process by which waves turn and lose energy around a headland on
uneven coastlines.
Lithology- the physical characteristics of particular rocks (geological structure).
Relief- height and slope of land.
Strata- layers of rock.
Folds- formed by pressure during tectonic activity, which makes rocks buckle and crumple (e.g.
the Lulworth Crumple).
Faults- formed when the stress or pressure to which a rock is subjected, exceeds its internal
strength, causing it to fracture. The faults then slip or move along fault planes.
Dip- the angle at which rock strata lie (horizontally, vertically, dipping towards the sea or dipping
inland).
Fissures- a fracture or crack in rock along which there is a distinct separation, often filled with
mineral-bearing materials.
Deformation- is the degree of tilting or folding of rock.
Concordant coastlines- where bands of more resistant and less resistant rock run parallel to the
coast.
Discordant coastlines- the geology alternates between bands of more resistant and less
resistant rock, which run perpendicular to the coast.
Haff coastlines- when long spits of sand cross large bays and form lagoons, aligned parallel to
the coast.
Dalmatian coastlines- when a rise in sea level leads to the flooding of valleys and ridges, leaving
the tops of the ridges remaining above the surface of the sea, as a series of offshore islands that
run parallel to the coast.
Headlands- formed along discordant coastline with alternating bands of hard and soft rock. The
bands of soft rock erode more quickly than those of more resistant rock leaving a section of land
jutting out into the sea.
Bays- formed along discordant coastline with alternating bands of hard and soft rock. The soft
rock erodes more quickly, forming a bay.
Micro-features- are small-scale coastal features such as caves and wave-cut notches which
form part of a cliff profile.
Impermeable rocks- do not allow groundwater flow e.g. clays and mudstones.
Permeable rocks- allow water to flow through them e.g. sandstones and limestones.
Porous rocks- contain small holes in that are not connected making them impermeable.
Coastal recession- how fast a coastline is moving inland.
Foliation- is where all the crystals in a rock are orientated in one direction, producing
weaknesses. Tends to be found in metamorphic rocks.
,Landscape systems, processes and change 2 of 27
Crystalline rocks- are made up of interlocking mineral crystals.
Clastic rocks- consist of sediment particles cemented together.
Unconsolidated materials- sediment that is not cemented to form solid rock, a process known
as lithification.
Xerophytes- can tolerate very dry conditions.
Halophytes- can tolerate salt water.
Plant succession- means the changing structure of a plant community over time as an area of
initially bare sediment is colonised.
Pioneer species- the first colonising plants which begin the process of plant succession.
Climatic climax community- the final community of species that will be adjusted to the climatic
conditions of an area.
3.1- The coast, and wider littoral zone, has distinctive features and landscapes.
a. The littoral zone consists of backshore, nearshore and offshore zones, includes a wide variety
of coastal types and is a dynamic zone of rapid change.
• The littoral/ coastal zone is constantly changing (dynamic) due to short term factors (e.g. tides
and storm surges) and long term factors (e.g. changes in sea level and climate change).
• Nearshore is often the one with the most intense human activity.
• Ordered alphabetically.
b. Coasts can be classified by using longer term criteria such as geology and changes of sea
level or shorter term processes such as inputs from river, waves and tides.
Long term criteria
• Geology- creating rocky, sandy and estuarine coasts, plus concordant and discordant coast.
• Changes in sea level- creating emergent or submerging coasts.
Short term criteria
• Level of energy- creating high- or low-energy coasts.
• Balance between erosion and deposition- creating either erosional or depositional coasts.
• No classification system is definitive e.g. Cornwall’s high energy coast is mainly rock but also
has long stretches of sand and some estuaries.
, Landscape systems, processes and change 3 of 27
Formation processes Relative sea level Tidal range Wave energy
change
Primary coasts are Emergent coasts where Varies hugely on Low energy sheltered
dominated by land- the coast is rising coastlines, meaning coasts with limited fetch
based processes, such relative to sea level, for coasts can be: and low wind speeds
as deposition at the example as a result of • Microtidal (0-2m) resulting in small waves.
coast from rivers or new tectonic uplift. • Mesotidal (2-4)
coastal land formed from • Macrotidal (4m<)
lava flows.
Secondary coasts are Submergent coasts are High energy exposed
dominated by marine being flooded by the sea coasts, facing prevailing
erosion or deposition either because of sea winds with long wave
processes. level rise and/or fetches resulting in
subsiding land. powerful waves.
c. Rocky coasts (high and low relief) result from resistant geology, often in a high-energy
environment, whereas coastal plain landscapes are found near areas of low relief and result
from supply of sediment from different terrestrial and offshore sources, often in a low-energy
environment.
Rocky coasts
• High relief cliffs are composed of relatively hard rock.
Two main cliff profile types:
• Marine erosion dominated: wave action dominates and cliffs tend to be steep, unvegetated and
there is little rock debris at the base of the cliff.
• Subaerial process dominated: not actively eroded at the base by waves; shallower, curved slope
and lower relief; surface runoff erosion and mass movement are responsible for the cliff shape.
Coastal plains
• Low relief areas close to the coast.
• Many contain estuary wetlands and marshes, poorly drained due to flatness.
• Low energy environment, lacking large and powerful waves.
Form when:
• Sea level falls, exposing the sea bed of what was once a shallow continental shelf sea e.g.
Atlantic coastal plain, USA.
• Sediment brought from the land by the river systems it’s deposited at the coast causing coastal
accretion so coastlines gradually move seaward, such as river deltas.
• Sediment is moved from offshore sources (sand bars) towards the coast by ocean currents.
3.2- Geological structure influences the development of coastal landscapes at a variety of scales.
a. Geological structure is responsible for the formation of concordant and discordant coasts.
• Concordant/Pacific coastlines are where the rock strata run PARALLEL to the coast.
• E.g. along the south coast of the Isle of Purbeck, the bands of more and less resistant rock run
parallel to the coast.
• Discordant/Atlantic coastlines form when different rock strata run PERPENDICULAR to the sea.
• Rock strata meet the coast at 90º in parallel bands
• E.g. along the eastern coast of the Isle of Purbeck.
b. Geological structure influences coastal morphology: Dalmatian and Haff type concordant
coasts and headlands and bays on discordant coasts.
• Concordant coastlines—Dalmatian coastlines, where a rise in sea levels leads to the flooding of
valleys and ridges, leaving the tops of the ridges remaining above the surface of the sea, as a
series of offshore islands that run parallel to the coast.
• E.g. Dalmatian coast in Croatia
Enquiry question 1: Why are coastal landscapes different and what processes cause these
differences?
Key words:
Littoral zone- the boundary between land and sea which stretches out into the sea and onto the
shore.
Backshore- area above high tide level and only affected by exceptionally high tides.
Foreshore- land where most wave processes occur, inter-tidal or surf zone.
Nearshore- shallow water areas close to land.
Offshore- the open sea.
Breakpoint bar- zone of breaking waves.
Subaerial processes- including weathering processes (mechanical, chemical and biological),
mass movement processes (landslides, rock falls) and surface runoff erosion.
Submergent coastline- when a rise in sea level floods a previously exposed coast.
Emergent coastline- when a fall in sea level exposes land previously covered by the sea.
Cliff profile- the shape and characteristics of a cliff, often viewed as a cross section.
Coastal morphology- the shape and form of coastal landscapes and their features.
Accretion- refers to the deposition of sediment at a coast that expands the area of land.
Joint- (vertical cracks) caused by either a contraction of sediment as it drys out or by earth
movements during uplift.
Bedding plane- (horizontal crack) caused by gaps in time periods of rock formation.
Wave refraction- is the process by which waves turn and lose energy around a headland on
uneven coastlines.
Lithology- the physical characteristics of particular rocks (geological structure).
Relief- height and slope of land.
Strata- layers of rock.
Folds- formed by pressure during tectonic activity, which makes rocks buckle and crumple (e.g.
the Lulworth Crumple).
Faults- formed when the stress or pressure to which a rock is subjected, exceeds its internal
strength, causing it to fracture. The faults then slip or move along fault planes.
Dip- the angle at which rock strata lie (horizontally, vertically, dipping towards the sea or dipping
inland).
Fissures- a fracture or crack in rock along which there is a distinct separation, often filled with
mineral-bearing materials.
Deformation- is the degree of tilting or folding of rock.
Concordant coastlines- where bands of more resistant and less resistant rock run parallel to the
coast.
Discordant coastlines- the geology alternates between bands of more resistant and less
resistant rock, which run perpendicular to the coast.
Haff coastlines- when long spits of sand cross large bays and form lagoons, aligned parallel to
the coast.
Dalmatian coastlines- when a rise in sea level leads to the flooding of valleys and ridges, leaving
the tops of the ridges remaining above the surface of the sea, as a series of offshore islands that
run parallel to the coast.
Headlands- formed along discordant coastline with alternating bands of hard and soft rock. The
bands of soft rock erode more quickly than those of more resistant rock leaving a section of land
jutting out into the sea.
Bays- formed along discordant coastline with alternating bands of hard and soft rock. The soft
rock erodes more quickly, forming a bay.
Micro-features- are small-scale coastal features such as caves and wave-cut notches which
form part of a cliff profile.
Impermeable rocks- do not allow groundwater flow e.g. clays and mudstones.
Permeable rocks- allow water to flow through them e.g. sandstones and limestones.
Porous rocks- contain small holes in that are not connected making them impermeable.
Coastal recession- how fast a coastline is moving inland.
Foliation- is where all the crystals in a rock are orientated in one direction, producing
weaknesses. Tends to be found in metamorphic rocks.
,Landscape systems, processes and change 2 of 27
Crystalline rocks- are made up of interlocking mineral crystals.
Clastic rocks- consist of sediment particles cemented together.
Unconsolidated materials- sediment that is not cemented to form solid rock, a process known
as lithification.
Xerophytes- can tolerate very dry conditions.
Halophytes- can tolerate salt water.
Plant succession- means the changing structure of a plant community over time as an area of
initially bare sediment is colonised.
Pioneer species- the first colonising plants which begin the process of plant succession.
Climatic climax community- the final community of species that will be adjusted to the climatic
conditions of an area.
3.1- The coast, and wider littoral zone, has distinctive features and landscapes.
a. The littoral zone consists of backshore, nearshore and offshore zones, includes a wide variety
of coastal types and is a dynamic zone of rapid change.
• The littoral/ coastal zone is constantly changing (dynamic) due to short term factors (e.g. tides
and storm surges) and long term factors (e.g. changes in sea level and climate change).
• Nearshore is often the one with the most intense human activity.
• Ordered alphabetically.
b. Coasts can be classified by using longer term criteria such as geology and changes of sea
level or shorter term processes such as inputs from river, waves and tides.
Long term criteria
• Geology- creating rocky, sandy and estuarine coasts, plus concordant and discordant coast.
• Changes in sea level- creating emergent or submerging coasts.
Short term criteria
• Level of energy- creating high- or low-energy coasts.
• Balance between erosion and deposition- creating either erosional or depositional coasts.
• No classification system is definitive e.g. Cornwall’s high energy coast is mainly rock but also
has long stretches of sand and some estuaries.
, Landscape systems, processes and change 3 of 27
Formation processes Relative sea level Tidal range Wave energy
change
Primary coasts are Emergent coasts where Varies hugely on Low energy sheltered
dominated by land- the coast is rising coastlines, meaning coasts with limited fetch
based processes, such relative to sea level, for coasts can be: and low wind speeds
as deposition at the example as a result of • Microtidal (0-2m) resulting in small waves.
coast from rivers or new tectonic uplift. • Mesotidal (2-4)
coastal land formed from • Macrotidal (4m<)
lava flows.
Secondary coasts are Submergent coasts are High energy exposed
dominated by marine being flooded by the sea coasts, facing prevailing
erosion or deposition either because of sea winds with long wave
processes. level rise and/or fetches resulting in
subsiding land. powerful waves.
c. Rocky coasts (high and low relief) result from resistant geology, often in a high-energy
environment, whereas coastal plain landscapes are found near areas of low relief and result
from supply of sediment from different terrestrial and offshore sources, often in a low-energy
environment.
Rocky coasts
• High relief cliffs are composed of relatively hard rock.
Two main cliff profile types:
• Marine erosion dominated: wave action dominates and cliffs tend to be steep, unvegetated and
there is little rock debris at the base of the cliff.
• Subaerial process dominated: not actively eroded at the base by waves; shallower, curved slope
and lower relief; surface runoff erosion and mass movement are responsible for the cliff shape.
Coastal plains
• Low relief areas close to the coast.
• Many contain estuary wetlands and marshes, poorly drained due to flatness.
• Low energy environment, lacking large and powerful waves.
Form when:
• Sea level falls, exposing the sea bed of what was once a shallow continental shelf sea e.g.
Atlantic coastal plain, USA.
• Sediment brought from the land by the river systems it’s deposited at the coast causing coastal
accretion so coastlines gradually move seaward, such as river deltas.
• Sediment is moved from offshore sources (sand bars) towards the coast by ocean currents.
3.2- Geological structure influences the development of coastal landscapes at a variety of scales.
a. Geological structure is responsible for the formation of concordant and discordant coasts.
• Concordant/Pacific coastlines are where the rock strata run PARALLEL to the coast.
• E.g. along the south coast of the Isle of Purbeck, the bands of more and less resistant rock run
parallel to the coast.
• Discordant/Atlantic coastlines form when different rock strata run PERPENDICULAR to the sea.
• Rock strata meet the coast at 90º in parallel bands
• E.g. along the eastern coast of the Isle of Purbeck.
b. Geological structure influences coastal morphology: Dalmatian and Haff type concordant
coasts and headlands and bays on discordant coasts.
• Concordant coastlines—Dalmatian coastlines, where a rise in sea levels leads to the flooding of
valleys and ridges, leaving the tops of the ridges remaining above the surface of the sea, as a
series of offshore islands that run parallel to the coast.
• E.g. Dalmatian coast in Croatia
