PATHOPHYSIOLOGY EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE KEY
CONCEPTS AND DISORDERS EXAM 2 NOTES
1. What Causes Ridged Abdomen in Peritonitis?
• A ridged abdomen in peritonitis is caused by involuntary muscle
guarding. This happens as a protective mechanism where the
abdominal muscles contract in response to inflammation of the
peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity). This contraction
makes the abdomen feel hard or "board-like."
2. What Disorder Results in Mechanical Bowel Obstruction?
• Mechanical bowel obstruction can be caused by several
disorders, including:
o Adhesions (scar tissue from previous surgeries)
o Hernias (where part of the intestine protrudes through a
weakness in the abdominal wall)
o Tumors (cancerous growths obstructing the bowel)
o Intussusception (when a part of the intestine folds into itself)
o Volvulus (twisting of the intestine)
o Strictures (narrowing of the intestine due to conditions like
Crohn's disease).
3. The Cause of Hiatal Hernia
• Hiatal hernia occurs when part of the stomach pushes up
through the diaphragm into the chest cavity. Causes include:
o Age-related changes: Weakening of the diaphragm with age.
o Increased abdominal pressure: This can be due to
obesity, pregnancy, heavy lifting, or chronic coughing.
o Injury: Trauma or surgery that affects the diaphragm.
4. Cause of Diarrhea with Antibiotic Ingestion
• Antibiotic-associated diarrhea occurs when antibiotics disrupt the
natural balance of gut bacteria. This disruption can lead to an
overgrowth of harmful bacteria, such as Clostridioides difficile (C.
diff), which can cause severe diarrhea and colitis.
5. Diseases that Cause H. pylori
• Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is associated with
several gastrointestinal diseases, including:
o Chronic gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining.
, o Peptic ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach or the first part of the
small intestine (duodenum).
o Gastric cancer: Particularly adenocarcinoma of the stomach.
o MALT lymphoma: A type of stomach cancer affecting the
mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue.
6. Name Inflammatory Bowel Disorders
• Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) include:
o Crohn’s Disease: Causes inflammation anywhere along the
gastrointestinal tract, often affecting the small intestine and
colon.
o Ulcerative Colitis: Causes inflammation and ulcers in the lining
of the colon and rectum.
7. Cause of Chronic Pancreatitis
• Chronic pancreatitis is often caused by:
o Long-term alcohol abuse: The most common cause.
o Genetic mutations: Such as those seen in cystic fibrosis.
o Autoimmune diseases: Where the body’s immune system
attacks the pancreas.
o Obstruction: Due to gallstones or tumors blocking the
pancreatic duct.
o Hypertriglyceridemia: High levels of triglycerides in the blood.
8. Define Intussusception
• Intussusception is a medical condition in which a part of the
intestine folds into the section immediately ahead of it, similar to
how the segments of a telescope slide into each other. This can
lead to a blockage of the intestine, preventing food or fluid from
passing through and potentially cutting off the blood supply to the
affected part of the intestine.
9. Cause of Heartburn
• Heartburn is caused by acid reflux, which occurs when stomach acid
or bile flows back up into the esophagus. This can irritate the lining of
the esophagus and cause a burning sensation in the chest. Common
triggers include eating large meals, lying down after eating,
consuming certain foods and beverages (like spicy foods, chocolate,
caffeine, and alcohol), and conditions like gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD).
10. Fecal Impaction/Mechanical Bowel Obstruction
• Fecal Impaction occurs when a large, hardened stool becomes
stuck in the rectum or lower colon, making it difficult or impossible to
, pass naturally.
• Mechanical Bowel Obstruction is a blockage in the intestines
caused by physical barriers, such as tumors, hernias, adhesions
(scar tissue), volvulus (twisting of the intestine), or intussusception.
This prevents the normal movement of the contents of the
intestines.
11. Cause of Acute Pancreatitis
• Acute Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that occurs
suddenly. Common causes include:
o Gallstones: They can block the bile duct, leading to the
inflammation of the pancreas.
o Alcohol Abuse: Heavy alcohol consumption is a leading
cause of acute pancreatitis.
o Medications: Certain drugs can cause inflammation of the
pancreas.
o High Triglycerides: Elevated levels of triglycerides in the
blood can trigger pancreatitis.
o Trauma: Injury to the pancreas from surgery or an accident
can also cause acute pancreatitis.
12. Transmission of Hepatitis A, B, C, E
• Hepatitis A: Transmitted primarily through ingestion of contaminated
food or water (fecal-oral route).
• Hepatitis B: Transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids,
such as blood, semen, and vaginal fluids. It can also be transmitted
from mother to child during childbirth.
• Hepatitis C: Primarily transmitted through exposure to infectious
blood, such as through sharing needles or other drug-injection
equipment.
• Hepatitis E: Similar to hepatitis A, it is transmitted through ingestion
of contaminated food or water (fecal-oral route), but is more common
in areas with poor sanitation.
13. Cause of Cleft Lip and Palate
• Cleft Lip and Palate are birth defects that occur when a baby's lip or
mouth do not form properly during pregnancy. The exact cause is often
multifactorial and can involve genetic factors, environmental factors
(such as maternal smoking, diabetes, and certain medications taken
during pregnancy), and nutritional deficiencies (like folic acid).
14. Clinical Manifestations of Appendicitis
• The clinical manifestations of appendicitis include:
CONCEPTS AND DISORDERS EXAM 2 NOTES
1. What Causes Ridged Abdomen in Peritonitis?
• A ridged abdomen in peritonitis is caused by involuntary muscle
guarding. This happens as a protective mechanism where the
abdominal muscles contract in response to inflammation of the
peritoneum (the lining of the abdominal cavity). This contraction
makes the abdomen feel hard or "board-like."
2. What Disorder Results in Mechanical Bowel Obstruction?
• Mechanical bowel obstruction can be caused by several
disorders, including:
o Adhesions (scar tissue from previous surgeries)
o Hernias (where part of the intestine protrudes through a
weakness in the abdominal wall)
o Tumors (cancerous growths obstructing the bowel)
o Intussusception (when a part of the intestine folds into itself)
o Volvulus (twisting of the intestine)
o Strictures (narrowing of the intestine due to conditions like
Crohn's disease).
3. The Cause of Hiatal Hernia
• Hiatal hernia occurs when part of the stomach pushes up
through the diaphragm into the chest cavity. Causes include:
o Age-related changes: Weakening of the diaphragm with age.
o Increased abdominal pressure: This can be due to
obesity, pregnancy, heavy lifting, or chronic coughing.
o Injury: Trauma or surgery that affects the diaphragm.
4. Cause of Diarrhea with Antibiotic Ingestion
• Antibiotic-associated diarrhea occurs when antibiotics disrupt the
natural balance of gut bacteria. This disruption can lead to an
overgrowth of harmful bacteria, such as Clostridioides difficile (C.
diff), which can cause severe diarrhea and colitis.
5. Diseases that Cause H. pylori
• Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) infection is associated with
several gastrointestinal diseases, including:
o Chronic gastritis: Inflammation of the stomach lining.
, o Peptic ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach or the first part of the
small intestine (duodenum).
o Gastric cancer: Particularly adenocarcinoma of the stomach.
o MALT lymphoma: A type of stomach cancer affecting the
mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue.
6. Name Inflammatory Bowel Disorders
• Inflammatory Bowel Diseases (IBD) include:
o Crohn’s Disease: Causes inflammation anywhere along the
gastrointestinal tract, often affecting the small intestine and
colon.
o Ulcerative Colitis: Causes inflammation and ulcers in the lining
of the colon and rectum.
7. Cause of Chronic Pancreatitis
• Chronic pancreatitis is often caused by:
o Long-term alcohol abuse: The most common cause.
o Genetic mutations: Such as those seen in cystic fibrosis.
o Autoimmune diseases: Where the body’s immune system
attacks the pancreas.
o Obstruction: Due to gallstones or tumors blocking the
pancreatic duct.
o Hypertriglyceridemia: High levels of triglycerides in the blood.
8. Define Intussusception
• Intussusception is a medical condition in which a part of the
intestine folds into the section immediately ahead of it, similar to
how the segments of a telescope slide into each other. This can
lead to a blockage of the intestine, preventing food or fluid from
passing through and potentially cutting off the blood supply to the
affected part of the intestine.
9. Cause of Heartburn
• Heartburn is caused by acid reflux, which occurs when stomach acid
or bile flows back up into the esophagus. This can irritate the lining of
the esophagus and cause a burning sensation in the chest. Common
triggers include eating large meals, lying down after eating,
consuming certain foods and beverages (like spicy foods, chocolate,
caffeine, and alcohol), and conditions like gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD).
10. Fecal Impaction/Mechanical Bowel Obstruction
• Fecal Impaction occurs when a large, hardened stool becomes
stuck in the rectum or lower colon, making it difficult or impossible to
, pass naturally.
• Mechanical Bowel Obstruction is a blockage in the intestines
caused by physical barriers, such as tumors, hernias, adhesions
(scar tissue), volvulus (twisting of the intestine), or intussusception.
This prevents the normal movement of the contents of the
intestines.
11. Cause of Acute Pancreatitis
• Acute Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas that occurs
suddenly. Common causes include:
o Gallstones: They can block the bile duct, leading to the
inflammation of the pancreas.
o Alcohol Abuse: Heavy alcohol consumption is a leading
cause of acute pancreatitis.
o Medications: Certain drugs can cause inflammation of the
pancreas.
o High Triglycerides: Elevated levels of triglycerides in the
blood can trigger pancreatitis.
o Trauma: Injury to the pancreas from surgery or an accident
can also cause acute pancreatitis.
12. Transmission of Hepatitis A, B, C, E
• Hepatitis A: Transmitted primarily through ingestion of contaminated
food or water (fecal-oral route).
• Hepatitis B: Transmitted through contact with infectious body fluids,
such as blood, semen, and vaginal fluids. It can also be transmitted
from mother to child during childbirth.
• Hepatitis C: Primarily transmitted through exposure to infectious
blood, such as through sharing needles or other drug-injection
equipment.
• Hepatitis E: Similar to hepatitis A, it is transmitted through ingestion
of contaminated food or water (fecal-oral route), but is more common
in areas with poor sanitation.
13. Cause of Cleft Lip and Palate
• Cleft Lip and Palate are birth defects that occur when a baby's lip or
mouth do not form properly during pregnancy. The exact cause is often
multifactorial and can involve genetic factors, environmental factors
(such as maternal smoking, diabetes, and certain medications taken
during pregnancy), and nutritional deficiencies (like folic acid).
14. Clinical Manifestations of Appendicitis
• The clinical manifestations of appendicitis include:
