Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 2: Matter, Energy, and Chemical Principles—Comprehensive Study of Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, Molecules, and Mixtures; Chemical Bonds Including Ionic, Covalent, Polar, Nonpolar, and Hydrogen Bonds; Molecular Formulas, V

Anatomy and Physiology Chapter 2: Matter, Energy, and Chemical Principles—Comprehensive Study of Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, Molecules, and Mixtures; Chemical Bonds Including Ionic, Covalent, Polar, Nonpolar, and Hydrogen Bonds; Molecular Formulas, Valence Shells, Electronegativity, and Octet Rule; Types of Chemical Reactions Including Synthesis, Decomposition, Exchange, Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions; Factors Affecting Reaction Rates; Water Properties, Electrolytes, Acids, Bases, pH, and Buffers; Inorganic and Organic Molecules; Monomers and Polymers Including Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids; Structure and Function of Amino Acids, Peptide Bonds, Protein Primary to Quaternary Structure, Denaturation; Enzyme Function and Substrate Interaction; DNA and RNA Structure Exam Questions Verified and Provided with Complete A+ Graded Rationales Latest Updated 2026 Matter Anything that has mass and occupies space Kinetic Energy Energy in action Potential Energy Stored energy Chemical Energy Stored in bonds of chemical substances Element Matter is composed of elements, cannot be broken into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods Atom Unique building blocks for each element Proton Positive charge, found in nucleus Neutron No charge, found in nucleus Electron Negative charge, Orbit nucleus in an electron cloud Nucleus Almost entire mass of the atom composed of Neutrons and Protons Ion Atom with net electric charge due to loss or gain of one or more electron Atomic Symbol One or two letter chemical shorthand for each element Isotope Structural variations of atoms, differ in number of neutrons they contain Molecule 2 or more atoms bonded together; all compounds are molecules Mixture Two or more components physically intermixed Solution Homogeneous (same) Mixtures Solvent The dissolver Solute What's dissolved Suspension Heterogenous mixtures; large, visible solutes settle out e.g. blood Chemical Bond Energy relationships between electrons of atoms; electrons in valence shells -has most potential energy -chemically reactive electrons Octet rule Valence Shell Outermost electron shell Ionic Bond Transfer of valence shell electrons from one atom to another forms ions Polar Covalent Bond Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar molecules such as H2O