1
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEW WITH
ACTUAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2026 LATEST VERSION
1. Differences b/w dysplasia, hyperplasia, physiological (6 q)
a. Dysplasia = deranged growth immature cells of a specific tissue that results in
atypical cells (cells vary in size, shape, and appearance)
i. often a precursor of cancer (ex. cervical dysplasia – cells start to change
+ become precancerous or cancerous)
ii. * Google: Dysplasia refers to an abnormality in the maturation of cells within
a tissue; consists of an increase in immature cells with a corresponding
decrease in mature cells. Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic
process (neoplasia is the process underlying cancer and some benign tumors)
b. Hyperplasia = increase in the # of cells in an organ or tissue
i. an organ can get enlarged as a result
ii. normal cells but there are more in number compared to normal human body
iii. CONTROLLED process that occurs in response to an appropriate
stimulus (could be physiologic or non) and goes away once the stimulus
leaves.
iv. Physiologic hyperplasia:
1. Ex. Hormonal – breast and uterine enlargement during pregnancy
2. Ex. Compensatory – liver regeneration after partial liver removal
HYPERTROPHY:
• Compensatory – liver part cut off and regrows?
• Adaptive – CHF + bladder
v. Non-physiologic hyperplasia: due to excess hormonal stimulation or the effects
of growth factors on target tissues
c. Metaplasia = reversible! one cell type converts into another cell type that can
better endure the change/stress (occurs when body goes into new “environment”, if
the stimulus is no longer present, cells will come into their original type)
,2
i. this occurs in response to chronic irritation or inflammation
ii. allows for substitution of cells that are better able to survive under
circumstances that a weak cell could not (must be same cell type…ex.
,3
epithelial cell could be converted into another type of epithelial cell, but NOT to
a connective tissue cell)
iii. ex. Barrett’s esophagus (squamous epithelial cells change to columnar cells)
d. Anaplasia = loss of cell differentiation (in cancerous tissue);
i. differentiated cells go backwards;
ii. “anaplasia” literally means “to form backward”
2. HIV - lab values, transmission, (CD4 count) … (* Look for key words! 2 answers
where CD4 count is low but second part of the Q is tricky) (3Q)
a. Transmission: through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, breast milk
b. CD4+ count of 200 or less = AIDS!
3. Hypersensitivity Reaction Types: (anaphylactic response… what is body
producing as a result of this response? vasoconstriction/dilatation going on?
(what kind of effects are we going to have what type of release are from an
anaphylactic response?)
a. TYPE 1 – IgE-mediated disorders ~ “Allergic, Anaphylaxis, Atopy”
i. Rapid immediate reaction, could be local or systemic!
ii. Involves CD4+ helper T cells, which leads to release of inflammatory
mediators from sensitized mast cells
iii. PATHO: Occurs when an allergen (dust, pollen, animal dander) interacts
with IgE antibodies (bound to mast cells, basophils, eosinophils) triggers
release of histamine from mast cells histamine signals the changes
associated with allergies (inflammatory processes) allergic reaction
happens almost instantly (symptoms within minutes)
iv. Examples:
1. allergic rhinitis (seasonal allergies) some individuals will develop
an atopic rash called “urticaria” (hives) or atopic dermatitis
(eczema)
, 4
2. allergic asthma by environmental triggers; this type is also
mechanism behind more serious conditions like peanut or bee- sting
allergies that can lead to swelling of throat/lips/tongue, SOB, stridor,
and anaphylactic shock
3. drug reactions
4. food reactions
5. allergy to animals
6. ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK = life threatening condition in which there is
systemic HISTAMINE release – mechanisms; causes a massive global
VASODILATION, hypotension, an increase in vascular permeability and
significant fluid movement into the tissue; TX epinephrine (raises BP
via vasoconstriction)
b. TYPE 2 – antibody-mediated disorders (cytotoxic hypersensitivity) ~
“AntiBody”
i. IgM and IgE antibodies against cell surface
ii. “tissue-specific” antigen
iii. Usually immediate responses
iv. PATHO: process by which IgG or IgM antibodies bind to a cell to cause cell
injury or death (antibody-mediated cytotoxicity). The antibodies produced by
the immune response bind to antigens on the patients own cell surfaces
(instead of pathogens).
v. Examples:
1. hemolytic disease of newborns (when Rh- mother has a second
Rh+ child and the maternal IgG targets fetal RBCs)
2. grave’s disease – specific to thyroid tissue
c. TYPE 3 – complement-mediated immune disorders ~ “Immune Complex”
i. PATHO: tissue damage created by immune complexes (aggregations of
antigen + antibodies). These antibody-antigen complexes circulate, get stuck
in vessels, and stimulate inflammation, end result being inflammation-
mediated tissue damage and necrotizing vasculitis.
ii. Examples: Systemic LUPUS erythematosus
d. TYPE 4 – T cell-mediated disorders ~ “Delayed”
i. Delayed hypersensitivity reaction
ii. PATHO: 2 subtypes:
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY FINAL EXAM REVIEW WITH
ACTUAL EXAM QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2026 LATEST VERSION
1. Differences b/w dysplasia, hyperplasia, physiological (6 q)
a. Dysplasia = deranged growth immature cells of a specific tissue that results in
atypical cells (cells vary in size, shape, and appearance)
i. often a precursor of cancer (ex. cervical dysplasia – cells start to change
+ become precancerous or cancerous)
ii. * Google: Dysplasia refers to an abnormality in the maturation of cells within
a tissue; consists of an increase in immature cells with a corresponding
decrease in mature cells. Dysplasia is often indicative of an early neoplastic
process (neoplasia is the process underlying cancer and some benign tumors)
b. Hyperplasia = increase in the # of cells in an organ or tissue
i. an organ can get enlarged as a result
ii. normal cells but there are more in number compared to normal human body
iii. CONTROLLED process that occurs in response to an appropriate
stimulus (could be physiologic or non) and goes away once the stimulus
leaves.
iv. Physiologic hyperplasia:
1. Ex. Hormonal – breast and uterine enlargement during pregnancy
2. Ex. Compensatory – liver regeneration after partial liver removal
HYPERTROPHY:
• Compensatory – liver part cut off and regrows?
• Adaptive – CHF + bladder
v. Non-physiologic hyperplasia: due to excess hormonal stimulation or the effects
of growth factors on target tissues
c. Metaplasia = reversible! one cell type converts into another cell type that can
better endure the change/stress (occurs when body goes into new “environment”, if
the stimulus is no longer present, cells will come into their original type)
,2
i. this occurs in response to chronic irritation or inflammation
ii. allows for substitution of cells that are better able to survive under
circumstances that a weak cell could not (must be same cell type…ex.
,3
epithelial cell could be converted into another type of epithelial cell, but NOT to
a connective tissue cell)
iii. ex. Barrett’s esophagus (squamous epithelial cells change to columnar cells)
d. Anaplasia = loss of cell differentiation (in cancerous tissue);
i. differentiated cells go backwards;
ii. “anaplasia” literally means “to form backward”
2. HIV - lab values, transmission, (CD4 count) … (* Look for key words! 2 answers
where CD4 count is low but second part of the Q is tricky) (3Q)
a. Transmission: through blood, semen, vaginal fluids, breast milk
b. CD4+ count of 200 or less = AIDS!
3. Hypersensitivity Reaction Types: (anaphylactic response… what is body
producing as a result of this response? vasoconstriction/dilatation going on?
(what kind of effects are we going to have what type of release are from an
anaphylactic response?)
a. TYPE 1 – IgE-mediated disorders ~ “Allergic, Anaphylaxis, Atopy”
i. Rapid immediate reaction, could be local or systemic!
ii. Involves CD4+ helper T cells, which leads to release of inflammatory
mediators from sensitized mast cells
iii. PATHO: Occurs when an allergen (dust, pollen, animal dander) interacts
with IgE antibodies (bound to mast cells, basophils, eosinophils) triggers
release of histamine from mast cells histamine signals the changes
associated with allergies (inflammatory processes) allergic reaction
happens almost instantly (symptoms within minutes)
iv. Examples:
1. allergic rhinitis (seasonal allergies) some individuals will develop
an atopic rash called “urticaria” (hives) or atopic dermatitis
(eczema)
, 4
2. allergic asthma by environmental triggers; this type is also
mechanism behind more serious conditions like peanut or bee- sting
allergies that can lead to swelling of throat/lips/tongue, SOB, stridor,
and anaphylactic shock
3. drug reactions
4. food reactions
5. allergy to animals
6. ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK = life threatening condition in which there is
systemic HISTAMINE release – mechanisms; causes a massive global
VASODILATION, hypotension, an increase in vascular permeability and
significant fluid movement into the tissue; TX epinephrine (raises BP
via vasoconstriction)
b. TYPE 2 – antibody-mediated disorders (cytotoxic hypersensitivity) ~
“AntiBody”
i. IgM and IgE antibodies against cell surface
ii. “tissue-specific” antigen
iii. Usually immediate responses
iv. PATHO: process by which IgG or IgM antibodies bind to a cell to cause cell
injury or death (antibody-mediated cytotoxicity). The antibodies produced by
the immune response bind to antigens on the patients own cell surfaces
(instead of pathogens).
v. Examples:
1. hemolytic disease of newborns (when Rh- mother has a second
Rh+ child and the maternal IgG targets fetal RBCs)
2. grave’s disease – specific to thyroid tissue
c. TYPE 3 – complement-mediated immune disorders ~ “Immune Complex”
i. PATHO: tissue damage created by immune complexes (aggregations of
antigen + antibodies). These antibody-antigen complexes circulate, get stuck
in vessels, and stimulate inflammation, end result being inflammation-
mediated tissue damage and necrotizing vasculitis.
ii. Examples: Systemic LUPUS erythematosus
d. TYPE 4 – T cell-mediated disorders ~ “Delayed”
i. Delayed hypersensitivity reaction
ii. PATHO: 2 subtypes:
