Scientific Research Methods
Lecture 1: Introduction
What is research?
Steps to provide an answer to a question or solution to a problem:
➢ Investigate existing problems
➢ Design a solution
➢ Evaluate if the solution is solving the problem
Method
Everyday-language: A Way to do something
Informal procedure: “I have a special method to do the washing”
Method in a scientific sense: Awareness of a procedure, involved objects, rules, possible
results, acting stakeholders.
➢ Precisely know what to do, for precisely known reasons
“Research Method”: A method for performing experiments, surveys, etc., in a precise way
,Analytical vs Empirical
Analytical Empirical
Theory Facts
Proofs Observations
Models Experience
Categories Archives
René Descartes: Carl Linnaeus:
Cogito ergo sum Systema Naturae
Empirical research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Data expressed in properties Numerical data
Asks about meaning of concepts Asks about facts
Analyzing propositions, through Testing hypotheses through statistical
arguments, and examples correlations
Exploratory Research
➢ Gain insight into yet unknown phenomena
➢ More general research questions
➢ Find new phenomena
➢ Flexible research design
o Adaptable to new insights
➢ Theory to be developed
Explanatory Research
➢ Gain additional insight about already known phenomena
➢ More specific research questions
➢ Understand reasons, causes
➢ Stricter research design
o Plan research procedure in advance
➢ Theory to be tested
,Empirical strategies
1. Survey: A system for collecting information from or about people to describe,
compare or explain their knowledge, attitudes and behavior.
Purpose: Descriptive, explanatory
a. Multiple observed subjects
b. Randomly sampled
c. Multiple variables in parallel
d. Statistical methods
e. Hypotheses to be tested
2. Case study: An empirical enquiry that draws on multiple sources of evidence to
investigate one instance of a phenomenon within its real-life context, especially
when the boundary between phenomena and context cannot be clearly specified.
Purpose: Descriptive, exploratory
a. One observed subject
b. Many variables in parallel
c. Low variability expected
d. Coding: annotating; frequency
e. Propositions to be tested or theory to be constructed
3. Experiment: An empirical enquiry that manipulates one factor or variable of the
studied setting. Based in randomization, different treatments are applied to or by
different subjects, while keeping other variables constant, and measuring the
effects on outcome variables.
a. Multiple observed subjects, randomly sampled for specific conditions
b. Few observed variables
c. Typical in domains with high stochastic variability
d. Statistical methods
e. Hypotheses to be tested
4. Quasi-experiment: An empirical enquiry similar to an experiment, where the
assignment of treatment happens by nature. So it is based on characteristics of the
subjects or objects themselves.
Triangulation
= Using multiple data sources, methods, theories, or
investigators to study a single topic, enhancing findings'
validity, credibility, and depth by approaching it from
various perspectives, offsetting individual biases, and
providing a more comprehensive understanding. It’s
strategy is to challenge results.
, Empirical Strategies: Survey
Careful with sources of bias:
1. Pictures
2. Wording of instructions
3. Visibility of answers
4. Order of answers
Guidelines
➢ Same visual stimulus for each answer option
➢ Visual midpoint of scales should equal conceptual midpoint
➢ Logical order of response options
➢ If possible present nominal option at random
➢ Instructions right in form of the answer options
➢ Careful with visual language
➢ Comparing different conditions? Make sure the visual stimulus is the same
➢ Instructions clear = easier job for the participant
➢ Put questions in context
➢ Ask people about what they know
o Don’t let them speculate
➢ Empty answers are different from don’t know, are different from won’t tell
Empirical Strategies: Case Study
Uses a limited number of sinstances; observations, content analysis and interviews which
are in-depth and for a longer period of time.
Data collection
In practice, we separate research strategy from data collection. Any data collection
method can be applied for any research strategy.
➢ Questionnaires, interviews, panels, observations, document review, text analysis
Lecture 1: Introduction
What is research?
Steps to provide an answer to a question or solution to a problem:
➢ Investigate existing problems
➢ Design a solution
➢ Evaluate if the solution is solving the problem
Method
Everyday-language: A Way to do something
Informal procedure: “I have a special method to do the washing”
Method in a scientific sense: Awareness of a procedure, involved objects, rules, possible
results, acting stakeholders.
➢ Precisely know what to do, for precisely known reasons
“Research Method”: A method for performing experiments, surveys, etc., in a precise way
,Analytical vs Empirical
Analytical Empirical
Theory Facts
Proofs Observations
Models Experience
Categories Archives
René Descartes: Carl Linnaeus:
Cogito ergo sum Systema Naturae
Empirical research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
Data expressed in properties Numerical data
Asks about meaning of concepts Asks about facts
Analyzing propositions, through Testing hypotheses through statistical
arguments, and examples correlations
Exploratory Research
➢ Gain insight into yet unknown phenomena
➢ More general research questions
➢ Find new phenomena
➢ Flexible research design
o Adaptable to new insights
➢ Theory to be developed
Explanatory Research
➢ Gain additional insight about already known phenomena
➢ More specific research questions
➢ Understand reasons, causes
➢ Stricter research design
o Plan research procedure in advance
➢ Theory to be tested
,Empirical strategies
1. Survey: A system for collecting information from or about people to describe,
compare or explain their knowledge, attitudes and behavior.
Purpose: Descriptive, explanatory
a. Multiple observed subjects
b. Randomly sampled
c. Multiple variables in parallel
d. Statistical methods
e. Hypotheses to be tested
2. Case study: An empirical enquiry that draws on multiple sources of evidence to
investigate one instance of a phenomenon within its real-life context, especially
when the boundary between phenomena and context cannot be clearly specified.
Purpose: Descriptive, exploratory
a. One observed subject
b. Many variables in parallel
c. Low variability expected
d. Coding: annotating; frequency
e. Propositions to be tested or theory to be constructed
3. Experiment: An empirical enquiry that manipulates one factor or variable of the
studied setting. Based in randomization, different treatments are applied to or by
different subjects, while keeping other variables constant, and measuring the
effects on outcome variables.
a. Multiple observed subjects, randomly sampled for specific conditions
b. Few observed variables
c. Typical in domains with high stochastic variability
d. Statistical methods
e. Hypotheses to be tested
4. Quasi-experiment: An empirical enquiry similar to an experiment, where the
assignment of treatment happens by nature. So it is based on characteristics of the
subjects or objects themselves.
Triangulation
= Using multiple data sources, methods, theories, or
investigators to study a single topic, enhancing findings'
validity, credibility, and depth by approaching it from
various perspectives, offsetting individual biases, and
providing a more comprehensive understanding. It’s
strategy is to challenge results.
, Empirical Strategies: Survey
Careful with sources of bias:
1. Pictures
2. Wording of instructions
3. Visibility of answers
4. Order of answers
Guidelines
➢ Same visual stimulus for each answer option
➢ Visual midpoint of scales should equal conceptual midpoint
➢ Logical order of response options
➢ If possible present nominal option at random
➢ Instructions right in form of the answer options
➢ Careful with visual language
➢ Comparing different conditions? Make sure the visual stimulus is the same
➢ Instructions clear = easier job for the participant
➢ Put questions in context
➢ Ask people about what they know
o Don’t let them speculate
➢ Empty answers are different from don’t know, are different from won’t tell
Empirical Strategies: Case Study
Uses a limited number of sinstances; observations, content analysis and interviews which
are in-depth and for a longer period of time.
Data collection
In practice, we separate research strategy from data collection. Any data collection
method can be applied for any research strategy.
➢ Questionnaires, interviews, panels, observations, document review, text analysis
