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Herbs & Spices
LO 1: Essential Oils & Their Properties
Essential oils are secondary metabolites, and most are classified as terpenes or terpenoids.
• Terpenoids:
o This is the largest class of these compounds.
o They are constructed from isoprene units.
o Common examples include limonene and menthol.
• Functions & Uses:
o It is believed they can deter pests.
o Many have antimicrobial properties, and this property is often increased in
warm environments, suggesting they may have been used historically to prevent
food spoilage.
o Aromatherapy is a practice that utilizes these essential oils.
LO 2: The History of the Spice Trade
The spice trade was a major driver of the global economy and exploration for centuries.
• Ancient Origins: The spice trade began in Ancient Greece.
• The Romans: Roman demand for spices was immense. Emperor Nero famously burned
a year's supply of cinnamon at his wife's funeral. The Roman Empire eventually fell.
• The Middle Ages:
o During the Dark Ages, Marco Polo embarked on a 25-year journey through Asia
starting in 1271.
o Upon his return, he was imprisoned during a war between Venice and Genoa,
where he wrote "The Travels of Marco Polo".
• The Age of Exploration:
o Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal established a school of navigation,
which was attended by explorers like Christopher Columbus.
o Columbus was searching for a western route to India for spices but instead landed
in the Americas.
• Control of the Spice Islands:
o The Maluku Islands, known as the Spice Islands, were a central hub of the trade.
o The Portuguese initially ruled the spice trade before being supplanted by
the Dutch East India Company.
o To create scarcity and drive up prices, the Dutch destroyed clove plantations,
uprooted 75% of spice trees, killed many native islanders, and repopulated the
islands with slaves.
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
,Page 2 of 33 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf
• Later Eras:
o The British took over the spice trade in the 18th century.
o The USA began participating in the trade during the 18th and 19th centuries.
LO 3: Key Spices from Asia
The primary hubs for the Asian spice trade were the Spice Islands, Sri Lanka, and India.
Common Name Genus/Species Family
Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum cassia Lauraceae
Black Pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae
Cloves Eugenia caryophyllata Myrtaceae
Nutmeg & Mace Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae
Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae
Saffron Crocus sativus Iridaceae
Peppers Capsicum spp. Solanaceae
Cinnamon
• Origin: Native to India and Sri Lanka, it is one of the oldest known spices.
• Plant Part Used: Bark.
• Types:
o C. zeylanicum: The inner bark is used to make quills.
o C. cassia: Sourced from Southeast Asia, the entire bark is used. It has a similar
flavor but is of lower quality.
Black Pepper
• Origin: Native to the hot, wet climates of India and the East Indies. It is the most widely
used spice today.
• Plant Part Used: Dried berries of a climbing vine.
• Varieties:
o Black Pepper: Berries are picked while still green and then dried, causing them
to turn black and shrivel.
o White Pepper: Berries are allowed to ripen on the vine, and the outer hull is
removed. This results in a milder, less pungent flavor.
o Red Pepper: Made from fully ripened pepper fruits that are either dried or
pickled. The flavor is considered more pungent and aromatic than green pepper.
Cloves
• Origin: The Spice Islands.
• Plant Part Used: Unopened flower buds of an evergreen tree. The buds must be picked
before they open.
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,Page 3 of 33 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf
• Historical Facts:
o Used in ancient China to sweeten the breath of court officials.
o A Frenchman stole seeds in 1770 to establish plantations in French colonies,
breaking the Dutch monopoly.
• Uses: In Indonesia, cloves are mixed with tobacco to make cigarettes called "kreteks."
Clove oil has also been used in medicines, mouthwashes, and soaps.
Nutmeg & Mace
• Origin: The Spice Islands.
• Plant Part Used: Two spices from a single plant. The fruit produces a seed covered by a
lacy, scarlet net called an aril.
o Mace: The dried and ground aril.
o Nutmeg: The seed itself, which is cured and shelled.
• Properties: Both spices are hallucinogenic but can make you very ill.
• Fun Fact: Connecticut is known as the "Nutmeg State" because of a 19th-century scam
where peddlers sold fake wooden nutmegs.
Ginger
• Origin: Native to tropical Asia but is now widely cultivated, with the best quality said to
come from Jamaica.
• Plant Part Used: Rhizomes (underground stems).
• Uses: It is a versatile spice used in gingerbread, Asian dishes, and ginger ale. It has also
been used medicinally to relieve nausea.
Turmeric
• Origin: Native to tropical Asia.
• Plant Part Used: Dried rhizome.
• Uses: It is the main spice in curry powder and is used as a yellow dye for food and fabric.
• Medicinal Properties: The active ingredients are curcumin and curcuminoids, which
have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. Curcumin is
being studied for its potential effectiveness in fighting certain cancers (pancreatic,
multiple myeloma) and preventing Alzheimer's disease and colon cancer.
Saffron
• Origin: Native to the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor.
• Plant Part Used: The delicate, orange-red stigmas of the autumn-blooming crocus
flower.
• Significance: It is the world's most expensive spice due to its labor-intensive harvesting
process. It takes the stigmas from 75,000 to 100,000 flowers to produce one pound of
saffron. Today, Spain dominates the world market.
LO 4: New World Peppers (Capsicum)
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Discovered by Columbus in the New World, these peppers have become integral to international
cuisine.
• The "Heat" Compound: The biting sensation of hot peppers comes from a group of
alkaloids, the most prevalent being capsaicin. Capsaicin is concentrated in the seeds and
the placental area where the seeds attach. The hotness is measured in Scoville Heat Units
(SHU).
o Bell Pepper: <1 SHU
o Jalapeño: 2,500–5,000 SHU
o Habanero: 100,000–300,000 SHU
o Carolina Reaper: up to 2,200,000 SHU
o Pure Capsaicin: 16,000,000 SHU
• Cultivated Species:
o C. annuum: The most widely cultivated species; includes sweet bell peppers and
hot varieties like cayenne.
o C. frutescens: Generally has a more fiery taste; used to make Tabasco sauce.
o C. chinense: Includes some of the hottest peppers, such as the habanero.
o C. baccatum: Known as aji in South America, where it is widely grown.
• Nutritional and Medicinal Value:
o Peppers are an excellent source of Vitamin C, containing more than citrus fruits.
o Capsaicin is used in analgesic creams to relieve pain from arthritis and shingles. It
works by triggering the same heat-sensitive pain nerves that respond to high
temperatures, eventually desensitizing them.
• Ecological Role: In wild peppers, higher capsaicin levels protect seeds from a destructive
fungus but also make the plant more vulnerable to drought and ant attacks.
1. Vanilla (Orchid Family)
Vanilla is a unique spice as it is the only one derived from a member of the orchid family
(Orchidaceae).
• Botany and Origin: Vanilla orchids are perennial vines native to the tropical rainforests
of Central America and Mexico. They produce long fruits or capsules, known as pods or
"beans". While there are about 110 species of vanilla orchids found in tropical regions
globally, the main one for commerce is Vanilla planifolia.
• Cultivation and Processing: Outside of its native range, where natural pollinators like
specific bees and hummingbirds are absent, the flowers must be hand-pollinated to
ensure fruit production. The pods are harvested while green and then undergo a months-
long curing process. This involves "sweating" (alternating between heating in the sun and
wrapping in blankets at night) followed by slow drying.
• Flavor Chemistry: The characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma come from vanillin, a
crystalline compound that is synthesized during the curing process. Uncured beans lack
this flavor. Pure vanilla extract contains vanillin plus other flavor compounds that
contribute to its complexity and can vary by region.
• Imitation and Substitutes:
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
Herbs & Spices
LO 1: Essential Oils & Their Properties
Essential oils are secondary metabolites, and most are classified as terpenes or terpenoids.
• Terpenoids:
o This is the largest class of these compounds.
o They are constructed from isoprene units.
o Common examples include limonene and menthol.
• Functions & Uses:
o It is believed they can deter pests.
o Many have antimicrobial properties, and this property is often increased in
warm environments, suggesting they may have been used historically to prevent
food spoilage.
o Aromatherapy is a practice that utilizes these essential oils.
LO 2: The History of the Spice Trade
The spice trade was a major driver of the global economy and exploration for centuries.
• Ancient Origins: The spice trade began in Ancient Greece.
• The Romans: Roman demand for spices was immense. Emperor Nero famously burned
a year's supply of cinnamon at his wife's funeral. The Roman Empire eventually fell.
• The Middle Ages:
o During the Dark Ages, Marco Polo embarked on a 25-year journey through Asia
starting in 1271.
o Upon his return, he was imprisoned during a war between Venice and Genoa,
where he wrote "The Travels of Marco Polo".
• The Age of Exploration:
o Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal established a school of navigation,
which was attended by explorers like Christopher Columbus.
o Columbus was searching for a western route to India for spices but instead landed
in the Americas.
• Control of the Spice Islands:
o The Maluku Islands, known as the Spice Islands, were a central hub of the trade.
o The Portuguese initially ruled the spice trade before being supplanted by
the Dutch East India Company.
o To create scarcity and drive up prices, the Dutch destroyed clove plantations,
uprooted 75% of spice trees, killed many native islanders, and repopulated the
islands with slaves.
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
,Page 2 of 33 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf
• Later Eras:
o The British took over the spice trade in the 18th century.
o The USA began participating in the trade during the 18th and 19th centuries.
LO 3: Key Spices from Asia
The primary hubs for the Asian spice trade were the Spice Islands, Sri Lanka, and India.
Common Name Genus/Species Family
Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum cassia Lauraceae
Black Pepper Piper nigrum Piperaceae
Cloves Eugenia caryophyllata Myrtaceae
Nutmeg & Mace Myristica fragrans Myristicaceae
Ginger Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae
Turmeric Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae
Saffron Crocus sativus Iridaceae
Peppers Capsicum spp. Solanaceae
Cinnamon
• Origin: Native to India and Sri Lanka, it is one of the oldest known spices.
• Plant Part Used: Bark.
• Types:
o C. zeylanicum: The inner bark is used to make quills.
o C. cassia: Sourced from Southeast Asia, the entire bark is used. It has a similar
flavor but is of lower quality.
Black Pepper
• Origin: Native to the hot, wet climates of India and the East Indies. It is the most widely
used spice today.
• Plant Part Used: Dried berries of a climbing vine.
• Varieties:
o Black Pepper: Berries are picked while still green and then dried, causing them
to turn black and shrivel.
o White Pepper: Berries are allowed to ripen on the vine, and the outer hull is
removed. This results in a milder, less pungent flavor.
o Red Pepper: Made from fully ripened pepper fruits that are either dried or
pickled. The flavor is considered more pungent and aromatic than green pepper.
Cloves
• Origin: The Spice Islands.
• Plant Part Used: Unopened flower buds of an evergreen tree. The buds must be picked
before they open.
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
,Page 3 of 33 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf
• Historical Facts:
o Used in ancient China to sweeten the breath of court officials.
o A Frenchman stole seeds in 1770 to establish plantations in French colonies,
breaking the Dutch monopoly.
• Uses: In Indonesia, cloves are mixed with tobacco to make cigarettes called "kreteks."
Clove oil has also been used in medicines, mouthwashes, and soaps.
Nutmeg & Mace
• Origin: The Spice Islands.
• Plant Part Used: Two spices from a single plant. The fruit produces a seed covered by a
lacy, scarlet net called an aril.
o Mace: The dried and ground aril.
o Nutmeg: The seed itself, which is cured and shelled.
• Properties: Both spices are hallucinogenic but can make you very ill.
• Fun Fact: Connecticut is known as the "Nutmeg State" because of a 19th-century scam
where peddlers sold fake wooden nutmegs.
Ginger
• Origin: Native to tropical Asia but is now widely cultivated, with the best quality said to
come from Jamaica.
• Plant Part Used: Rhizomes (underground stems).
• Uses: It is a versatile spice used in gingerbread, Asian dishes, and ginger ale. It has also
been used medicinally to relieve nausea.
Turmeric
• Origin: Native to tropical Asia.
• Plant Part Used: Dried rhizome.
• Uses: It is the main spice in curry powder and is used as a yellow dye for food and fabric.
• Medicinal Properties: The active ingredients are curcumin and curcuminoids, which
have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties. Curcumin is
being studied for its potential effectiveness in fighting certain cancers (pancreatic,
multiple myeloma) and preventing Alzheimer's disease and colon cancer.
Saffron
• Origin: Native to the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor.
• Plant Part Used: The delicate, orange-red stigmas of the autumn-blooming crocus
flower.
• Significance: It is the world's most expensive spice due to its labor-intensive harvesting
process. It takes the stigmas from 75,000 to 100,000 flowers to produce one pound of
saffron. Today, Spain dominates the world market.
LO 4: New World Peppers (Capsicum)
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
, Page 4 of 33 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf
Discovered by Columbus in the New World, these peppers have become integral to international
cuisine.
• The "Heat" Compound: The biting sensation of hot peppers comes from a group of
alkaloids, the most prevalent being capsaicin. Capsaicin is concentrated in the seeds and
the placental area where the seeds attach. The hotness is measured in Scoville Heat Units
(SHU).
o Bell Pepper: <1 SHU
o Jalapeño: 2,500–5,000 SHU
o Habanero: 100,000–300,000 SHU
o Carolina Reaper: up to 2,200,000 SHU
o Pure Capsaicin: 16,000,000 SHU
• Cultivated Species:
o C. annuum: The most widely cultivated species; includes sweet bell peppers and
hot varieties like cayenne.
o C. frutescens: Generally has a more fiery taste; used to make Tabasco sauce.
o C. chinense: Includes some of the hottest peppers, such as the habanero.
o C. baccatum: Known as aji in South America, where it is widely grown.
• Nutritional and Medicinal Value:
o Peppers are an excellent source of Vitamin C, containing more than citrus fruits.
o Capsaicin is used in analgesic creams to relieve pain from arthritis and shingles. It
works by triggering the same heat-sensitive pain nerves that respond to high
temperatures, eventually desensitizing them.
• Ecological Role: In wild peppers, higher capsaicin levels protect seeds from a destructive
fungus but also make the plant more vulnerable to drought and ant attacks.
1. Vanilla (Orchid Family)
Vanilla is a unique spice as it is the only one derived from a member of the orchid family
(Orchidaceae).
• Botany and Origin: Vanilla orchids are perennial vines native to the tropical rainforests
of Central America and Mexico. They produce long fruits or capsules, known as pods or
"beans". While there are about 110 species of vanilla orchids found in tropical regions
globally, the main one for commerce is Vanilla planifolia.
• Cultivation and Processing: Outside of its native range, where natural pollinators like
specific bees and hummingbirds are absent, the flowers must be hand-pollinated to
ensure fruit production. The pods are harvested while green and then undergo a months-
long curing process. This involves "sweating" (alternating between heating in the sun and
wrapping in blankets at night) followed by slow drying.
• Flavor Chemistry: The characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma come from vanillin, a
crystalline compound that is synthesized during the curing process. Uncured beans lack
this flavor. Pure vanilla extract contains vanillin plus other flavor compounds that
contribute to its complexity and can vary by region.
• Imitation and Substitutes:
Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf /2026-2027 Economic botany test 2 studyguide.pdf.pdf 100% correct
