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, Chapter 01_Essay cn




Answer each of the following questions with an essay. Be sure to include specific examples that support y
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our thesis and conclusions.
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1. What are some of the problems in using evidence from contemporary gatherer societies to study early
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humans?




2. How did early Homo erectus spread out of East Africa into other parts of the world? Where did they
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go, and how early did they reach those places?
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3. What were the key features of Paleolithic food attainment and Paleolithic diets?
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4. What are some of the theories about gender relationships in Paleolithic societies? What changed in
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those relationships in the Neolithic period? What kinds of evidence are used in supporting or arguing
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nagainst these theories? cn cn




5. What is the relationship between pastoralism, disease, and humans?
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6. How did material goods create, define, and perpetuate social hierarchies in Neolithic societies?
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Answer Key cn




1. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• Because the earliest humans did not leave behind written evidence, scientists have studied more r
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ecent societies that lived by similar gathering means. However, most evidence about recent gatherer socie
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ties was written by external sources and thus includes their biases and expectations, such as the inferiority
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of foraging as a lifestyle. Furthermore, few modern foragers or gatherers are truly isolated from the influe
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nce of other agricultural or industrial cultures. Also, this approach assumes that gatherer
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,societies are somehow static and remain unchanged over many centuries, which ignores the evidence of h
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ow adaptable such societies really are.
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2. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• Homo erectus migrated out of East Africa into central Africa, and then into northern Africa. This
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migration took place 2 million years ago. As early as 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus had spread to
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Asia, reaching China and Java by 1.5 million years ago. These migrations took place over land, along co
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astline routes. Because sea levels were lower then, individuals could cross from the mainland of China to
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Java on foot. Homo erectus also moved northward from Africa, into Spain by 800,000 years ago and int
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o Germany 500,000 years ago. In each of these places, they adapted hunting and gathering techniques to
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the local environment.
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3. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• The Paleolithic diet consisted of a combination of plants and animal protein. Paleolithic peoples
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foraged for their food, engaging in what we would consider a combination of hunting, scavenging, and
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gathering. Most of what they ate were plants. Animal protein often came from scavenged foods like ins
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ects and shellfish rather than being hunted directly. It is unknown as to whether labor was divided betw
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een genders, but in today's foraging societies, there is some division, with men engaging in hunting large
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animals and women responsible for gathering plants and small animals. It took between ten and twenty
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hours per week to gather food, but this number varied depending on environmental factors and group d
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ecisions. Because Paleolithic peoples had to forage for their diet, they expended energy and, in general,
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avoided diseases common in sedentary societies. Life spans were kept in check by accidents, injuries, a
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nd infections.
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4. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• Studies of more recent foraging societies suggest that women were valued for their labor, which
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nwas recognized as equal to the work of men. Both men and women foraged for food, and both participat
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ed in hunting. Other scholars theorize that even in Paleolithic society one person may have emerged as a
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leader, perhaps based on personal skill, and that this person was almost always a man. It is more certain
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nthat by the Neolithic period, after the invention of plow agriculture, society became more hierarchical a
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nd men took on more of a public, elite status. Women were limited to the home or enclosed spaces, and l
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and inheritance favored men over women. Evidence for gender roles in the Neolithic period comes from
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later written traditions.
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, 5. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• Pastoralism is the herding and raising of livestock. It requires humans to live in close contact with
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their herd animals, thus exposing humans to various animal-
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borne diseases, such as smallpox. Initially, exposure to diseases may have caused higher mortality rates i
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n pastoralist societies, but over time, humans would have developed some resistance to them. Foragers
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were not exposed to these diseases and thus did not develop any resistance to them. When a pastoralist so
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ciety encountered a forager society, this might have led the former to expose the latter to deadly pathogen
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s.



6. Answer would ideally include: cn cn cn




• The possession of material goods— cn cn cn cn



such as livestock, dwelling structures, plows, carts, and pots—
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indicated that some individuals had control over more labor. Labor was used to acquire material goods.
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The more material goods one had, the more labor one controlled. This indicated status; to control labor
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was to have a higher status than others. Having material goods gave one the ability to acquire yet more
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material goods and to continue to acquire status. Material goods, along with land, could also constitute
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an inheritance, and thus perpetuate status into the next generation.
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Chapter 01_Matching cn




Use the following to answer questions 1-15:
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Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example provided in t
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he Definitions section.
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Terms

a. pastoralism

b. Neanderthals

c. division of labor cn cn




d. animism

e. social hierarchies cn




f. patriarchy

g. Paleolithic era cn




h. Agricultural Revolution cn




g. foraging

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