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ntroduction to the Urinary System ● The kidney is a regulator of blood plasma makeup ○ Removal of wastes ○ Regulate pH ○ Regulate BP ○ Maintain solute concentration ○ Control over RBC production → produces EPO to stimulate RBC production ○ Activates vitamin D (converts calcidiol → calcitriol) Nephron ● Functional unit of the kidney ● Kidneys filter ~180 L of plasma per day; <1% becomes urine ● Each kidney contains ~1 million nephrons ● 2 types ○ Juxtam...

Human Anatomy ● Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures ● The word “anatomy” comes from a Greek root that means “to cut apart” ○ First studied by observing the exterior of the body and observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries → later, physicians would use dissections to augment knowledge ○ Dissection involves cutting the body apart in order to observe its physical attributes and their relationships to one another ○ To observe struct...

Cardiac Muscle Fibers ● Myocardium ○ Cardiac muscle tissue found only in the heart ○ Autorythmicity– ability to initiate its own electrical potential at a fixed rate that spreads rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contractile mechanism ■ Neither skeletal or smooth muscle can do this ○ Heart rate is modulated by input from the endocrine and nervous systems Two Major Types of Cardiac Muscle Cells ● Myocardial contractile cells ○ 99% of cells ○ Responsible for cont...

Body Fluids Water ● Essential for life and is sometimes called a “nutrient” ○ It does not technically fit the definition of a nutrient because it does not provide energy or structural molecules ○ But– it is still a necessary component for the body to function properly Major Functions of Water ● Temperature regulation ○ Sweating and evaporation prevent overheating ● Cell Structure and Integrity ○ Major Component of cells, tissues, and organs ○ Maintains cell shape...

Lymphatic System ● Lymphatic system: lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissue, and lymphoid organs ○ Closely connected to the cardiovascular system ● Main functions → fluid balance, fat absorption, immunity Key Functions ● Fluid Recovery ○ Collects excess interstitial fluid that leaks out of blood capillaries ○ Once inside the lymphatic vessels, the fluid is called lymph ○ Lymphatic vessels return lymph to the bloodstream to prevent tissue swelling (edema) ● Transport...

Single celled organisms do not need blood because they can obtain nutrients directly from and excrete waste directly into their environment ● Humans need blood because we have large, complex bodies that require blood to deliver nutrients and excrete waste from the trillions of cells we are made of ○ Heart pumps blood throughout the body in a network of blood vessels ■ Three components of the cardiovascular system ● Heart ● Blood vessels ● Blood– the medium of transport in...

Primary Functions of the Respiratory System ● Supplies O2 for aerobic metabolism (ATP production) ● Removes CO2, a metabolic waste ● Helps regulate acid-base balancer ● Enables speech, olfaction, and protective reflexes (coughing, sneezing, Valsalva) ● Breathing is largely automatic, controlled by autonomic nervous system due to the constant cellular oxygen demand Anatomical Organization ● Upper Respiratory System ○ Nose ○ Nasal cavity ○ Sinuses ○ Pharynx ○ (so...

Primary Functions of the Digestive System ● The digestive system works continuously to: ○ Ingest food ○ Break down food mechanically and chemically ○ Absorb nutrients into the bloodstream or lymph ○ Eliminate waste (defecation) ● The small intestine is the primary site of digestion and absorption Alimentary Canal (GI Tract) ● One-way muscular tube from mouth → anus ● Food inside the canal is technically outside the body until absorbed Organs (In Order) ...

Differential Diagnosis and DSM Basics, Psychiatric Review of Systems (ROS), Mental Status Exam (MSE), Research Variables and Theory, Nursing Research and History, Therapeutic Interventions and Clinical Indicators Section 1: Differential Diagnosis and DSM Basics 1. What is the first step in the six-step differential diagnosis process? A. Rule out Etiology due to General Medical Condition B. Rule out Substance Abuse Etiology C. Determine the Specific Primary Disorder D. Rule out Factitious...

Pete, a 69-year-old post-surgical patient, develops nighttime disorientation and visual hallucinations (seeing people in balloons) after receiving zolpidem. In the morning, he is alert and cooperative. What is the most likely diagnosis? • A. Alzheimer's Disease • B. Major Neurocognitive Disorder • C. Moderate delirium due to sedative • D. Schizophrenia • Correct Answer: C • Rationale: Pete meets diagnostic criteria for medication-induced acute hyperactive delirium due to ...

What is the primary mechanism of action for Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)? o A) Inhibit NE reuptake o B) Inhibit 5-HT reuptake o C) Block histamine receptors o D) Inhibit DA reuptake o Answer: B. Rationale: SSRIs act by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin (5-HT). 2. Which of the following is an example of an SNRI? o A) Sertraline o B) Citalopram o C) Venlafaxine o D) Amitriptyline o Answer: C. Rationale: Venlafaxine is categorized as a SerotoninNorepinephrine Reup...

At what age can a diagnosis of a personality disorder be officially applied? o A) 13 o B) 16 o C) 18 o D) 21 o Rationale: Diagnosis is only applicable to individuals 18 or older because personalities are still developing in those under 18. 2. Which cluster of personality disorders is characterized by odd or eccentric behavior? o A) Cluster A o B) Cluster B o C) Cluster C o D) Cluster D o Rationale: Cluster A personality disorders are characterized by odd or eccentric thinking or be...

Harry Stack Sullivan viewed anxiety as which of the following? • A. A biological imbalance • B. Any painful feeling or emotion arising from social insecurity • C. A conflict between the id and ego • D. A result of learned behaviors • Correct Answer: B Rationale: Sullivan’s theory focuses on interpersonal relations, defining anxiety specifically as a painful emotion rooted in social insecurity. 2. Which developmental model should a nurse use to assess age-appropriate behavior...

Which dopamine pathway is primarily associated with the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions? o A) Mesocortical o B) Mesolimbic o C) Nigrostriatal o D) Tuberoinfundibular o Rationale: The mesolimbic pathway is the primary circuit associated with positive symptoms. 2. A patient presents with a flattened affect, reduced speech (alogia), and a lack of initiative (avolition). Which dopamine pathway is likely involved? o A) Mesolimbic o B) Mesocortical ...

A nurse refers a family to the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP). This reduces health disparities by providing: o a. Direct financial subsidies. o b. Funds to insure currently uninsured children. o c. Outreach to enroll children in Medicaid. o d. Prospective payments for child services. o Answer: b. o Rationale: SCHIP provides funds to insure children who are currently uninsured, thereby increasing access to care. 2. An older Native Alaskan woman in a remote village h...

Which term describes a change in behavior caused by biochemical brain changes, characterized by preoccupation with a substance despite negative outcomes? o A) Dependence o B) Tolerance o C) Addiction o D) Intoxication o Answer: C. o Rationale: Addiction is a behavioral change resulting from biochemical changes in the brain after continued use. 2. What occurs when a drug shows a decreased effect with repeated ingestion, requiring higher doses to achieve the original effect? o A) Toler...

A patient presents with a history of one major depressive episode and no history of mania or hypomania. What is the most likely diagnosis? • A. Bipolar I Disorder • B. Bipolar II Disorder • C. Unipolar Major Depression • D. Cyclothymic Disorder • Correct Answer: C • Rationale: Unipolar major depression is defined by a history of one or more major depressive episodes with no history of mania or hypomania. 2. Which score on the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) suggests that depr...

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How is the United States healthcare system best described to a group of new citizens? o A) It is a centralized system managed by one entity. o B) It is divided into two components: primary care (private) and public health. o C) It is a simple, non-competitive system with no concerns regarding cost. o D) It is a single-payer system providing universal access to all residents. o Correct Answer: B o Rationale: The US healthcare system is described as a two-class system consisting of priv...