AQA • Law

In Occupiers' Liability (governed by the 1957 Act for lawful visitors and the 1984 Act for trespassers), a defendant can avoid or reduce their liability by using several specific defences. Because this is a branch of negligence, the standard "tort" defences apply, but they have unique statutory twists.

In A-Level Law, Contract Law moves away from the "guilty mind" of criminal law and focuses on the enforceability of agreements. For a contract to be legally binding—rather than just a social promise—it must satisfy three core pillars: Offer and Acceptance (the agreement), Consideration (the "price" paid), and Intention to Create Legal Relations. If any of these are missing, the "contract" is void, and the courts will not intervene if one party fails to deliver.

Theories of Criminal Law (or Theories of Punishment) provide the philosophical justification for why the state has the right to punish an individual and what that punishment should achieve. These theories are generally divided into two main camps: utilitarian (forward-looking) and retributive (backward-looking). Retribution is based on the "just deserts" principle, arguing that punishment is a moral necessity regardless of its social benefits; the punishment must be proportionate to the cr...

In English law, Necessity is a controversial and strictly limited common law defence where a defendant argues that they committed a crime to prevent a greater evil from occurring. Unlike self-defence, which is a response to an external threat from a person, necessity usually arises from a choice between two unavoidable harms. For many years, the courts were reluctant to recognize it at all, famously ruling in Re A (Conjoined Twins) that for the defence to succeed, the act must be necessary to av...

While often grouped under the single label of "Common Assault," Assault and Battery are distinct legal concepts distinguished by the presence or absence of physical contact. Assault is a non-physical offence where the defendant's actions or words cause the victim to fear the imminent application of unlawful force; the harm is purely psychological, rooted in the victim’s apprehension of an attack. In contrast, Battery is defined by the actual application of unlawful physical force, whi...

In criminal law, breaking the chain of causation (also known as novus actus interveniens) refers to an intervening event that is so significant it relieves the defendant of legal responsibility for the ultimate consequence. While the defendant may satisfy factual causation—the "but for" test—the chain of legal causation must remain unbroken from the initial act to the final prohibited result. For an event to break the chain, it must be "free, deliberate, and informed" (R v Pagett...

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This is a document on notes surrounding a level law, criminal law on murder and loss of control explaining what the definitions and what will come up on exams

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