HERBAL MEDICINES
Lecture 1 – General
The origin of modern medicine is the use of medicinal plants. Pharmacognosy, the
study of biogenic or naturally derived pharmaceuticals and poisons, referred to as
natural products, emerged from this. The natural sources include plants, bacteria,
fungi, and animals.
Over time, pharmacognosy shifted its focus from descriptive botanical studies to
chemistry and biology (biological activity). Today, pharmacognosy integrates
advanced techniques such as genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics.
About 50% of the newly introduced drugs in western countries over the past 70 years
were of biogenic origin. Natural sources are relevant for drug development.
Herbal medicines can be categorized:
Herbal medicinal products (HMPs) / botanical drugs
Botanical food supplements and phytomedicines
- Herbal substances – raw materials, such as dried leaves or seeds
- Herbal preparations – derived from raw materials through processes
such as extraction, resulting in products like tinctures, teas, and
extracts.
Natural products are often used as probes for many targets to understand cellular
processes. They often strongly act with specific mechanisms of action.
An example of an isolated natural products used as active pharmaceutical ingredient
(API) is morphine. Morphine is isolated from the opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum), which serves as an analgesic for the management of severe pain.
Botanical drugs or herbal medicinal products are medicinal products derived from
plants and transformed into therapeutic agents through the processing of specific
plant parts or the entire plant. These products are obtained from a plant but no longer
retain the original structure of the plant or its organs. Common forms include
essential oils, gums, resins, balms, and extracts.
Isolated pure natural compounds are not botanical drugs.
Herbal medicinal products are widely used in Germany and other German-speaking
countries, such as Austria.
The use of herbal medicines is strongly culture dependent and varies between
countries in terms of acceptance and use. Traditional medicine practitioners rely
on indigenous knowledge and experience to maintain health, prevent, diagnose and
treat physical and mental illness.
In the Western world, there is use of traditional herbal preparations and scientifically
supported herbal medicinal products, referred to as phytotherapy.
1
,The non-Western world often maintains traditional medicine. Examples include
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (VTM), Kampo
in Japan, Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha in India, and Jamu in Indonesia.
A reason for the use of herbal medicines is the shortage of medical doctors in certain
regions. In Africa, for example, the ratio of traditional healers to the population is
approximately 1:500, while the availability of medical doctors is much lower, at
around 1:40,000.
In many Asian countries, traditional medicine is integrated into daily life. Between
60% and 75% of the population in countries such as China, Korea, and Japan
routinely relies on traditional medicines.
In Western countries (Europe, North America, and Australia) there has been an
increase in the use of plant-based medicinal products and supplements. This rising
interest in herbal medicines is driven by several factors, including pandemics,
growing concerns regarding side effects of drugs, affordability and access to drugs,
and a movement toward healthier, more natural lifestyles.
The WHO indicates the essential role of herbal medicines in global healthcare, noting
that more than 80% of the world’s population relies on them. Synthetic drugs may be
too expensive or inaccessible. The way traditional and complementary medicine
practitioners acquire their knowledge and skills varies across countries. Therefore,
member states are encouraged to assess their own situation and define their
specific healthcare needs.
Bioprospecting is a strategy in drug discovery that involves exploring plants as
sources of potential drug leads. The process begins with ethnobotanical use, where
traditional uses of plants guide researchers toward species with promising
therapeutic properties. From this starting point, bioprospecting progresses to
preclinical research, followed by clinical trials. This offers opportunities for the
development of new medicines.
Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology are scientific disciplines studying how
traditional remedies are used by humans.
Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between humans and plants. It involves
observing and analysing how societies use plants, including beliefs and cultural
practices. This includes a wide range of uses such as medicinal use, food, poisons,
building materials, fertilizers, coloring agents, and ornamental purposes.
Ethnobotanists often immerse themselves in the communities they study
(endogenous people).
Ethnopharmacology is an interdisciplinary field of research that focuses on traditional
medical systems and other empirical knowledge worldwide.
2
,Curare is a well-known example of a traditional herbal medicine that significantly
influenced modern medicine. The indigenous tribes applied it as a poison to the tips
of arrows to paralyze animals during hunting.
The plant sources of curare are important to distinguish its different types, more so
than the containers used to store it (‘tube-curare’ or ‘pot-curare’).
The active compound, tubocurarine, was a template for the development of
synthetic peripheral muscle relaxants. These drugs, known for their anticholinergic
properties, block neuromuscular transmission at the neuromuscular junction, leading
to the paralysis of affected skeletal muscles.
d-tubocurarine and rocuronium bromide are peripheral muscle relaxants. They
are commonly used in combination with anaesthetics in clinical practice.
Rocuronium bromide shares a structural feature with d-tubocurarine: the
spacing between its quaternary ammonium groups. These positively
charged nitrogen atoms are positioned at a similar distance in both molecules,
which is essential for their biological activity, specifically, their ability to bind to
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction and block
neurotransmission.
Rocuronium bromide is only active when it is administered parenterally.
Oriental (Asian) forms of traditional medicine (philosophic and religious aspects):
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) – China
Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha – India
Kampo – Japan
Jamu – Indonesia
Efficacy and safety require further investigation.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a philosophically based, holistic medical
system that considers all aspects of a person’s health—physical, emotional, and
spiritual. Central to TCM is the concept of balance, particularly the interplay
between yin and yang, opposing yet complementary principles that must remain in
balance for optimal health.
Today, TCM coexists with Western (conventional) medicine, where both systems are
integrated within healthcare. Modern TCM encompasses a wide range of practices,
including herbal medicine (mainly), acupuncture, cupping,
moxibustion, tuina massage, and food.
Moxibustion is a practice in which an herb is burned on or just
above the skin to warm and stimulate targeted areas of the body.
The aim is to promote the Qi (vital energy) and eliminate blockages,
thereby restoring balance and supporting the body’s natural healing
processes.
3
, Qi is the essential life force or vital energy in TCM. It flows throughout the body,
permeates everything, and is transferable. The body obtains Qi through two main
sources: digestion, which extracts Qi from food and drink, and breathing, which
draws Qi from the air into the lungs. The Qi is influenced by the balance between yin
and yang.
Another concept in TCM is the five elements theory, which links natural elements to
specific organs in the body:
Fire – heart
Wood – liver
Earth – spleen
Metal – lungs
Water – kidneys
Health is seen as a state in which all five elements are in balance. Illness arises
when one or more elements become imbalanced. The goal of therapy in TCM is to
restore this balance.
Traditional herbal recipes are formulated using multiple plants according to the five
elements theory.
Yin and yang are used in diagnosis. Diagnostic methods:
Tongue examination
Pulse diagnosis
Palpation of internal organs
Massage
Interviewing
TCM recipes are designed to restore harmony in the body by
restoring Qi and the yin-yang balance.
These formulations typically consist of polyherbal formulas, combining both mild
and strongly acting agents. A recipe may include a wide variety of plants and plant
parts, as well as raw materials of animal or mineral origin.
Many raw materials undergo processing before use to reduce toxicity
(detoxification). For example, aconitine, a toxic compound found in the tubers and
roots of Aconitum, is heat-denatured during processing to make it safer for medicinal
use.
In Europe, there is currently no specific legal framework for TCM. Instead, regulation
varies by country.
Polyherbal formulas
Emperor drug: Targets the main cause in pathophysiology
Minister drug: Targets the main or secondary causes in pathophysiology
Assistant drug: Either enhances the effect of the emperor drug, reduces toxic
effects of the emperor and minister drugs, or adds a paradoxical effect
Messenger drug: Guides the action of the formula to specific organs
4
Lecture 1 – General
The origin of modern medicine is the use of medicinal plants. Pharmacognosy, the
study of biogenic or naturally derived pharmaceuticals and poisons, referred to as
natural products, emerged from this. The natural sources include plants, bacteria,
fungi, and animals.
Over time, pharmacognosy shifted its focus from descriptive botanical studies to
chemistry and biology (biological activity). Today, pharmacognosy integrates
advanced techniques such as genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics.
About 50% of the newly introduced drugs in western countries over the past 70 years
were of biogenic origin. Natural sources are relevant for drug development.
Herbal medicines can be categorized:
Herbal medicinal products (HMPs) / botanical drugs
Botanical food supplements and phytomedicines
- Herbal substances – raw materials, such as dried leaves or seeds
- Herbal preparations – derived from raw materials through processes
such as extraction, resulting in products like tinctures, teas, and
extracts.
Natural products are often used as probes for many targets to understand cellular
processes. They often strongly act with specific mechanisms of action.
An example of an isolated natural products used as active pharmaceutical ingredient
(API) is morphine. Morphine is isolated from the opium poppy (Papaver
somniferum), which serves as an analgesic for the management of severe pain.
Botanical drugs or herbal medicinal products are medicinal products derived from
plants and transformed into therapeutic agents through the processing of specific
plant parts or the entire plant. These products are obtained from a plant but no longer
retain the original structure of the plant or its organs. Common forms include
essential oils, gums, resins, balms, and extracts.
Isolated pure natural compounds are not botanical drugs.
Herbal medicinal products are widely used in Germany and other German-speaking
countries, such as Austria.
The use of herbal medicines is strongly culture dependent and varies between
countries in terms of acceptance and use. Traditional medicine practitioners rely
on indigenous knowledge and experience to maintain health, prevent, diagnose and
treat physical and mental illness.
In the Western world, there is use of traditional herbal preparations and scientifically
supported herbal medicinal products, referred to as phytotherapy.
1
,The non-Western world often maintains traditional medicine. Examples include
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (VTM), Kampo
in Japan, Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha in India, and Jamu in Indonesia.
A reason for the use of herbal medicines is the shortage of medical doctors in certain
regions. In Africa, for example, the ratio of traditional healers to the population is
approximately 1:500, while the availability of medical doctors is much lower, at
around 1:40,000.
In many Asian countries, traditional medicine is integrated into daily life. Between
60% and 75% of the population in countries such as China, Korea, and Japan
routinely relies on traditional medicines.
In Western countries (Europe, North America, and Australia) there has been an
increase in the use of plant-based medicinal products and supplements. This rising
interest in herbal medicines is driven by several factors, including pandemics,
growing concerns regarding side effects of drugs, affordability and access to drugs,
and a movement toward healthier, more natural lifestyles.
The WHO indicates the essential role of herbal medicines in global healthcare, noting
that more than 80% of the world’s population relies on them. Synthetic drugs may be
too expensive or inaccessible. The way traditional and complementary medicine
practitioners acquire their knowledge and skills varies across countries. Therefore,
member states are encouraged to assess their own situation and define their
specific healthcare needs.
Bioprospecting is a strategy in drug discovery that involves exploring plants as
sources of potential drug leads. The process begins with ethnobotanical use, where
traditional uses of plants guide researchers toward species with promising
therapeutic properties. From this starting point, bioprospecting progresses to
preclinical research, followed by clinical trials. This offers opportunities for the
development of new medicines.
Ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology are scientific disciplines studying how
traditional remedies are used by humans.
Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between humans and plants. It involves
observing and analysing how societies use plants, including beliefs and cultural
practices. This includes a wide range of uses such as medicinal use, food, poisons,
building materials, fertilizers, coloring agents, and ornamental purposes.
Ethnobotanists often immerse themselves in the communities they study
(endogenous people).
Ethnopharmacology is an interdisciplinary field of research that focuses on traditional
medical systems and other empirical knowledge worldwide.
2
,Curare is a well-known example of a traditional herbal medicine that significantly
influenced modern medicine. The indigenous tribes applied it as a poison to the tips
of arrows to paralyze animals during hunting.
The plant sources of curare are important to distinguish its different types, more so
than the containers used to store it (‘tube-curare’ or ‘pot-curare’).
The active compound, tubocurarine, was a template for the development of
synthetic peripheral muscle relaxants. These drugs, known for their anticholinergic
properties, block neuromuscular transmission at the neuromuscular junction, leading
to the paralysis of affected skeletal muscles.
d-tubocurarine and rocuronium bromide are peripheral muscle relaxants. They
are commonly used in combination with anaesthetics in clinical practice.
Rocuronium bromide shares a structural feature with d-tubocurarine: the
spacing between its quaternary ammonium groups. These positively
charged nitrogen atoms are positioned at a similar distance in both molecules,
which is essential for their biological activity, specifically, their ability to bind to
nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the neuromuscular junction and block
neurotransmission.
Rocuronium bromide is only active when it is administered parenterally.
Oriental (Asian) forms of traditional medicine (philosophic and religious aspects):
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) – China
Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha – India
Kampo – Japan
Jamu – Indonesia
Efficacy and safety require further investigation.
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) is a philosophically based, holistic medical
system that considers all aspects of a person’s health—physical, emotional, and
spiritual. Central to TCM is the concept of balance, particularly the interplay
between yin and yang, opposing yet complementary principles that must remain in
balance for optimal health.
Today, TCM coexists with Western (conventional) medicine, where both systems are
integrated within healthcare. Modern TCM encompasses a wide range of practices,
including herbal medicine (mainly), acupuncture, cupping,
moxibustion, tuina massage, and food.
Moxibustion is a practice in which an herb is burned on or just
above the skin to warm and stimulate targeted areas of the body.
The aim is to promote the Qi (vital energy) and eliminate blockages,
thereby restoring balance and supporting the body’s natural healing
processes.
3
, Qi is the essential life force or vital energy in TCM. It flows throughout the body,
permeates everything, and is transferable. The body obtains Qi through two main
sources: digestion, which extracts Qi from food and drink, and breathing, which
draws Qi from the air into the lungs. The Qi is influenced by the balance between yin
and yang.
Another concept in TCM is the five elements theory, which links natural elements to
specific organs in the body:
Fire – heart
Wood – liver
Earth – spleen
Metal – lungs
Water – kidneys
Health is seen as a state in which all five elements are in balance. Illness arises
when one or more elements become imbalanced. The goal of therapy in TCM is to
restore this balance.
Traditional herbal recipes are formulated using multiple plants according to the five
elements theory.
Yin and yang are used in diagnosis. Diagnostic methods:
Tongue examination
Pulse diagnosis
Palpation of internal organs
Massage
Interviewing
TCM recipes are designed to restore harmony in the body by
restoring Qi and the yin-yang balance.
These formulations typically consist of polyherbal formulas, combining both mild
and strongly acting agents. A recipe may include a wide variety of plants and plant
parts, as well as raw materials of animal or mineral origin.
Many raw materials undergo processing before use to reduce toxicity
(detoxification). For example, aconitine, a toxic compound found in the tubers and
roots of Aconitum, is heat-denatured during processing to make it safer for medicinal
use.
In Europe, there is currently no specific legal framework for TCM. Instead, regulation
varies by country.
Polyherbal formulas
Emperor drug: Targets the main cause in pathophysiology
Minister drug: Targets the main or secondary causes in pathophysiology
Assistant drug: Either enhances the effect of the emperor drug, reduces toxic
effects of the emperor and minister drugs, or adds a paradoxical effect
Messenger drug: Guides the action of the formula to specific organs
4
