SESSION 1&2: Introduction, Ideas and History
Psychology
• Definition: Scientific study of mind and behavior, including cognitive and physiological processes.
• Combines conceptual/theoretical ideas with empirical/experimental research.
• Studies humans, non-human animals, and computational models.
• Mind: internal experience (thoughts, perceptions, emotions)
• Behavior: observable actions, words, gestures, body responses, biological activity
• Mind–Body Problem: How mental states relate to physical brain processes
• Key phenomena: feelings, desires, cognitions, reasoning, decisions
• William James (1842–1910): Defined psychology as “The Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and their conditions”
Empiricism fromsensoryexperiences
knowledgecomes
• Knowledge gained through observation and measurement
nation •
op •
Francis Bacon (1561–1626): Founder of Scientific Method
Scientific Method Steps:
1. Observe
2. Ask questions (How? Why?)
3. Form hypothesis
4. Make predictions
5. Conduct experiments
6. Analyze results
7. Report findings
as he meade 8. Revise if necessary
• Tools: fMRI, validated questionnaires, experiments
3
Monism / Materialism
•
ErnitsInusicalourthoughtsfeelingsareresultsofbrainactivity
Brain = Mind; mental processes arise from brain activity
• Most psychologists adopt this view
Dualism
seesmind bodyastwodifferent
things together
i nteracting
• Rene Descartes (1596–1650): Mind ≠ Brain
• Mind (res cogitans) = non-physical, Brain (res extensa) = physicalmaterialistic
conscious
• Question: How do mind and brain interact?
Epiphenomenalism
typeof
as Dualism
• Brain activity produces mind; mind cannot affect brain
Butdontcauseaffectonpnyicaffat
Interactionism
atypeof Dualism causen.name
• Mind and brain influence each other
Structuralism
•
lathcentury
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Founder
downmentalprocessesinto
break their
basiccomponents
• Psychology = self-observation of mental processes like
conciousness
• Focus: structure of consciousness
uncentt.cn
e ngfamnidmYgeganzing
• Method: Introspection (systematic self-observation)
• Sensations = raw sensory experiences without meaning
Introspection
• Systematic self-observation of conscious experience
• Used by Wundt to study structure of mental processes
Functionalism
• William James (1842–1910): Founder
• Focus: purpose and utility of consciousness (stream of consciousness)
• Real-world observation and applied studies
• Inspired by Darwin’s natural selection
Gestalt Psychology
nowwe perceive patternsand thanindividualelements
wholesrather
• Max Wertheimer (1880–1943): Founder
•
•
“The whole is more than the sum of its parts”
Studied perception and pattern recognition
I.EE i ii i
ie
EEioigii
• Opposed structuralism’s atomistic approach ban
• Phi phenomenon: stationary stimuli shown in sequence appear to move
ftp.itr.it initieryimagesbecasemainmovingaim
Behaviourism
• John B. Watson (1878–1958): Founder
• Focus: predict and control observable behavior, not consciousness
sr behaviour isadirectresponseto a specificstimulus
ÉhtanE • Method: Stimulus–Response (S-R), environmental control
is
behaviour changed
likepunishmentby
environment
control
• ABC model: Antecedent → Behavior → Consequences orpresent
• Humans = part of animal behavior spectrum (quantitative, not qualitative differences)
, • Famous experiments: Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Little Albert
Cognitive Revolution
• Replaced behaviorism as dominant model
• Focus: mental processes (thinking, perception, memory, problem-solving)
• Behavior explained via information processing
• Humans actively construct subjective reality
• Example: McGurk Effect (illusion from conflicting audio-visual stimuli)
Psychophysiological Model of Mind
• Behavior explained through neural, hormonal, and biochemical processes
• Reductionist: complex behaviors understood via biological mechanisms
• Experience modifies behavior through brain plasticity
• Example: Eric Kandel – neurobiology of memory, Aplysia
bseasing
Psychodynamic Model of Mind
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Founder
• Behavior driven by unconscious desires, conflicts, and instincts
• Behavior arises from inherited drives and societal constraints
• Motivation = reduce tension/conflict
Psychoanalysis
• Freud: Goal is to make unconscious influences conscious
• Observed patients with psychological disorders; applies to normal behavior
Id, Ego, Superego
• Id: Pleasure principle; primal drives
• Ego: Mediates between id and superego; reason and self-control
• Superego: Morality, conscience, internalized ideals
Behaviourist Model of Mind
• Focus: observable behavior
• Behavior determined by antecedents and consequences
• Humans not inherently good or evil; shaped by environment
Cognitive Model of Mind
• Focus: mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, decision-making, problem-solving)
• Behavior understood via information processing
• Humans actively construct subjective reality
Humanistic Model of Mind
• Focus: personal growth, self-actualization, values, conscious choice goats
95insi t.fi
• Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs eas foodwaterairsleep
• Behavior shaped by values and social conditions influencing moral reasoning 2 5955Eur Stability
protectionhealth
William James
3
•
•
Founder of Functionalism
Stream of consciousness, purpose of behavior
In imagesocialconnections
4
• Professor at Harvard, wrote Principles of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt I confidencerespectachievement
• Founder of Structuralism 5selfactualization needs
• First psychological lab (Leipzig, 1879) Talinced personalgrowth reaching fullpotential creativity
• Studied immediate conscious experience via introspection selffulfilment
John Watson
• Founder of Behaviorism
peoplemustsatisfylowerlevelneedsbeforemovingtohigherlev
• ABC model, environmental control of behavior
• Believed any healthy child can be trained for any skill given right environment
Sigmund Freud
• Founder of Psychoanalysis
• Developed mind structure: Id, Ego, Superego
• Levels of consciousness: unconscious, preconscious, conscious
Rene Descartes
• Philosopher; Dualism
• Mind and brain are separate substances: res cogitans (mind), res extensa (brain/body)
• Raised mind-body interaction question
,SESSION 3&4: Biological Basis
Human Nervous System
• The human nervous system is a complex network responsible for sensing, processing, and responding to internal and external stimuli.
• Divided into two main parts: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• Functions:
o Brain: Processes information, controls voluntary and involuntary functions, stores memories, mediates emotions.
o Spinal cord: Conduit for signals between brain and body; mediates reflexes.
• Contains ~85–100 billion neurons and ~85 billion glial cells.
• Connectivity: 100–500 trillion synapses.
• Uses ~20% of body’s energy; relies only on glucose.
Spinal Cord
• Connects CNS to PNS.
• Mediates reflexes independently of the brain.
• Segmented: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal. CTLSC
• Contains ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) pathways.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Links CNS to limbs and organs.
• Divided into:
1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – voluntary control.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – involuntary control.
Somatic Nervous System
• Controls voluntary movements and conscious sensations.
• Motor (efferent): CNS → skeletal muscles.
o Above neck: cranial nerves (e.g., facial expressions, eye movements)
o Below neck: spinal nerves (e.g., arm/leg movement)
• Sensory (afferent): Body → CNS
o Above neck: cranial nerves (taste, smell, vision, hearing)
o Below neck: spinal nerves (touch, pain, temperature)
• Includes spinal reflexes (automatic responses without brain):
o Example: knee-jerk reflex s.us
Autonomic Nervous System Tffrs
• Controls involuntary functions (heartbeat, digestion, glands).
• Divided into:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System (“Fight or Flight”)
▪ Prepares body for stress or activity.
▪ Effects:
, ▪ Heart: ↑ rate & contraction
▪ Lungs: bronchiole dilation
▪ Eyes: pupil dilation
▪ Digestion: ↓ activity
▪ Sweat glands: ↑ sweating
▪ Liver: glucose release
▪ Adrenal glands: adrenaline release
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (“Rest and Digest”)
▪ Conserves energy, promotes maintenance.
▪ Effects:
▪ Heart: ↓ rate
▪ Lungs: bronchiole constriction
▪ Eyes: pupil constriction
▪ Digestion: ↑ activity
▪ Urination: ↑
• Neurons = signal transmission; glia = support & modulation.
Endocrine System
•
produce andsecretenorms
Interacts with ANS (via HPA axis): ae8ssb1 ppqmac
m a esnomone
perceives
s
o
is imioi Ken.it
Hypothalamus → CRH → Pituitary gland → ACTH → Adrenal glands → cortisol
gg a fess
as.ms 1 Tianeys
• Mobilizes energy, suppresses non-essential functions, feedback inhibits overactivation. Type immaoa
Glial Cells
• Non-neuronal cells that support, nourish, and insulate neurons.
• Key types:
1. Microglia – immune defense, clean dead cells.
2. Astrocytes – connect neurons to blood vessels, regulate nutrients & blood flow.
3. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) / Schwann cells (PNS) – produce myelin for faster conduction.
Anatomy of a Neuron
• Soma (cell body): nucleus, integrates signals, maintains health.
• Dendrites: receive chemical signals.
• Axon hillock: initiates action potential if threshold reached (~-55 mV).
• Axon: transmits electrical impulses.
• Myelin sheath: insulation; increases speed.
• Nodes of Ranvier: gaps; allow saltatory conduction.
• Axon terminals / Terminal buttons: release neurotransmitters.
• Vesicles: store neurotransmitters.
• Synapse: gap between neurons for chemical communication.
• Presynaptic cell: sends signal.
Psychology
• Definition: Scientific study of mind and behavior, including cognitive and physiological processes.
• Combines conceptual/theoretical ideas with empirical/experimental research.
• Studies humans, non-human animals, and computational models.
• Mind: internal experience (thoughts, perceptions, emotions)
• Behavior: observable actions, words, gestures, body responses, biological activity
• Mind–Body Problem: How mental states relate to physical brain processes
• Key phenomena: feelings, desires, cognitions, reasoning, decisions
• William James (1842–1910): Defined psychology as “The Science of Mental Life, both of its phenomena and their conditions”
Empiricism fromsensoryexperiences
knowledgecomes
• Knowledge gained through observation and measurement
nation •
op •
Francis Bacon (1561–1626): Founder of Scientific Method
Scientific Method Steps:
1. Observe
2. Ask questions (How? Why?)
3. Form hypothesis
4. Make predictions
5. Conduct experiments
6. Analyze results
7. Report findings
as he meade 8. Revise if necessary
• Tools: fMRI, validated questionnaires, experiments
3
Monism / Materialism
•
ErnitsInusicalourthoughtsfeelingsareresultsofbrainactivity
Brain = Mind; mental processes arise from brain activity
• Most psychologists adopt this view
Dualism
seesmind bodyastwodifferent
things together
i nteracting
• Rene Descartes (1596–1650): Mind ≠ Brain
• Mind (res cogitans) = non-physical, Brain (res extensa) = physicalmaterialistic
conscious
• Question: How do mind and brain interact?
Epiphenomenalism
typeof
as Dualism
• Brain activity produces mind; mind cannot affect brain
Butdontcauseaffectonpnyicaffat
Interactionism
atypeof Dualism causen.name
• Mind and brain influence each other
Structuralism
•
lathcentury
Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920): Founder
downmentalprocessesinto
break their
basiccomponents
• Psychology = self-observation of mental processes like
conciousness
• Focus: structure of consciousness
uncentt.cn
e ngfamnidmYgeganzing
• Method: Introspection (systematic self-observation)
• Sensations = raw sensory experiences without meaning
Introspection
• Systematic self-observation of conscious experience
• Used by Wundt to study structure of mental processes
Functionalism
• William James (1842–1910): Founder
• Focus: purpose and utility of consciousness (stream of consciousness)
• Real-world observation and applied studies
• Inspired by Darwin’s natural selection
Gestalt Psychology
nowwe perceive patternsand thanindividualelements
wholesrather
• Max Wertheimer (1880–1943): Founder
•
•
“The whole is more than the sum of its parts”
Studied perception and pattern recognition
I.EE i ii i
ie
EEioigii
• Opposed structuralism’s atomistic approach ban
• Phi phenomenon: stationary stimuli shown in sequence appear to move
ftp.itr.it initieryimagesbecasemainmovingaim
Behaviourism
• John B. Watson (1878–1958): Founder
• Focus: predict and control observable behavior, not consciousness
sr behaviour isadirectresponseto a specificstimulus
ÉhtanE • Method: Stimulus–Response (S-R), environmental control
is
behaviour changed
likepunishmentby
environment
control
• ABC model: Antecedent → Behavior → Consequences orpresent
• Humans = part of animal behavior spectrum (quantitative, not qualitative differences)
, • Famous experiments: Pavlov’s classical conditioning, Little Albert
Cognitive Revolution
• Replaced behaviorism as dominant model
• Focus: mental processes (thinking, perception, memory, problem-solving)
• Behavior explained via information processing
• Humans actively construct subjective reality
• Example: McGurk Effect (illusion from conflicting audio-visual stimuli)
Psychophysiological Model of Mind
• Behavior explained through neural, hormonal, and biochemical processes
• Reductionist: complex behaviors understood via biological mechanisms
• Experience modifies behavior through brain plasticity
• Example: Eric Kandel – neurobiology of memory, Aplysia
bseasing
Psychodynamic Model of Mind
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): Founder
• Behavior driven by unconscious desires, conflicts, and instincts
• Behavior arises from inherited drives and societal constraints
• Motivation = reduce tension/conflict
Psychoanalysis
• Freud: Goal is to make unconscious influences conscious
• Observed patients with psychological disorders; applies to normal behavior
Id, Ego, Superego
• Id: Pleasure principle; primal drives
• Ego: Mediates between id and superego; reason and self-control
• Superego: Morality, conscience, internalized ideals
Behaviourist Model of Mind
• Focus: observable behavior
• Behavior determined by antecedents and consequences
• Humans not inherently good or evil; shaped by environment
Cognitive Model of Mind
• Focus: mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, decision-making, problem-solving)
• Behavior understood via information processing
• Humans actively construct subjective reality
Humanistic Model of Mind
• Focus: personal growth, self-actualization, values, conscious choice goats
95insi t.fi
• Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs eas foodwaterairsleep
• Behavior shaped by values and social conditions influencing moral reasoning 2 5955Eur Stability
protectionhealth
William James
3
•
•
Founder of Functionalism
Stream of consciousness, purpose of behavior
In imagesocialconnections
4
• Professor at Harvard, wrote Principles of Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt I confidencerespectachievement
• Founder of Structuralism 5selfactualization needs
• First psychological lab (Leipzig, 1879) Talinced personalgrowth reaching fullpotential creativity
• Studied immediate conscious experience via introspection selffulfilment
John Watson
• Founder of Behaviorism
peoplemustsatisfylowerlevelneedsbeforemovingtohigherlev
• ABC model, environmental control of behavior
• Believed any healthy child can be trained for any skill given right environment
Sigmund Freud
• Founder of Psychoanalysis
• Developed mind structure: Id, Ego, Superego
• Levels of consciousness: unconscious, preconscious, conscious
Rene Descartes
• Philosopher; Dualism
• Mind and brain are separate substances: res cogitans (mind), res extensa (brain/body)
• Raised mind-body interaction question
,SESSION 3&4: Biological Basis
Human Nervous System
• The human nervous system is a complex network responsible for sensing, processing, and responding to internal and external stimuli.
• Divided into two main parts: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Composed of the brain and spinal cord.
• Functions:
o Brain: Processes information, controls voluntary and involuntary functions, stores memories, mediates emotions.
o Spinal cord: Conduit for signals between brain and body; mediates reflexes.
• Contains ~85–100 billion neurons and ~85 billion glial cells.
• Connectivity: 100–500 trillion synapses.
• Uses ~20% of body’s energy; relies only on glucose.
Spinal Cord
• Connects CNS to PNS.
• Mediates reflexes independently of the brain.
• Segmented: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal. CTLSC
• Contains ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) pathways.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Links CNS to limbs and organs.
• Divided into:
1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – voluntary control.
2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – involuntary control.
Somatic Nervous System
• Controls voluntary movements and conscious sensations.
• Motor (efferent): CNS → skeletal muscles.
o Above neck: cranial nerves (e.g., facial expressions, eye movements)
o Below neck: spinal nerves (e.g., arm/leg movement)
• Sensory (afferent): Body → CNS
o Above neck: cranial nerves (taste, smell, vision, hearing)
o Below neck: spinal nerves (touch, pain, temperature)
• Includes spinal reflexes (automatic responses without brain):
o Example: knee-jerk reflex s.us
Autonomic Nervous System Tffrs
• Controls involuntary functions (heartbeat, digestion, glands).
• Divided into:
1. Sympathetic Nervous System (“Fight or Flight”)
▪ Prepares body for stress or activity.
▪ Effects:
, ▪ Heart: ↑ rate & contraction
▪ Lungs: bronchiole dilation
▪ Eyes: pupil dilation
▪ Digestion: ↓ activity
▪ Sweat glands: ↑ sweating
▪ Liver: glucose release
▪ Adrenal glands: adrenaline release
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System (“Rest and Digest”)
▪ Conserves energy, promotes maintenance.
▪ Effects:
▪ Heart: ↓ rate
▪ Lungs: bronchiole constriction
▪ Eyes: pupil constriction
▪ Digestion: ↑ activity
▪ Urination: ↑
• Neurons = signal transmission; glia = support & modulation.
Endocrine System
•
produce andsecretenorms
Interacts with ANS (via HPA axis): ae8ssb1 ppqmac
m a esnomone
perceives
s
o
is imioi Ken.it
Hypothalamus → CRH → Pituitary gland → ACTH → Adrenal glands → cortisol
gg a fess
as.ms 1 Tianeys
• Mobilizes energy, suppresses non-essential functions, feedback inhibits overactivation. Type immaoa
Glial Cells
• Non-neuronal cells that support, nourish, and insulate neurons.
• Key types:
1. Microglia – immune defense, clean dead cells.
2. Astrocytes – connect neurons to blood vessels, regulate nutrients & blood flow.
3. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) / Schwann cells (PNS) – produce myelin for faster conduction.
Anatomy of a Neuron
• Soma (cell body): nucleus, integrates signals, maintains health.
• Dendrites: receive chemical signals.
• Axon hillock: initiates action potential if threshold reached (~-55 mV).
• Axon: transmits electrical impulses.
• Myelin sheath: insulation; increases speed.
• Nodes of Ranvier: gaps; allow saltatory conduction.
• Axon terminals / Terminal buttons: release neurotransmitters.
• Vesicles: store neurotransmitters.
• Synapse: gap between neurons for chemical communication.
• Presynaptic cell: sends signal.
