CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE
2025-2026
Week 1 – Introduction to Criminology & Social Construction
1. What is the Object of Study in Criminology?
• Criminology has never had one universally accepted definition of what it should study.
Instead, there are ongoing debates about what counts as criminological knowledge.
Main debates:
• Should criminology study only crimes in the criminal law?
• Should it also study:
o Corporate crime
o State crime
o Environmental harm
o Uncriminalized but harmful behaviour?
• Should criminology focus:
o Only on individuals?
o Or also on corporations, governments, and ecosystems?
• Key idea: Crime is not a fixed or “natural” category — it is socially, politically and historically
constructed.
Mainstream view (Van Dijk)
• Criminology =
o “The science that studies the nature and causes of human behaviour that violates
criminal law, and society’s reactions to it.”
• In practice, mainstream criminology focuses on:
o Street crime
o Property crime
o Violence
o Drug crime
• BUT… this approach is criticized because:
o Many harmful acts are not criminalised
o Administrative/regulatory violations can cause more damage than street crime
o Powerful actors (corporations, states) often avoid criminalization
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
2. The Crime vs Harm Debate
• Many harmful actions are not considered “crime”.
• Types of harm:
o Physical harm
o Financial / economic harm
o Emotional & psychological harm
o Environmental harm
o Harm to cultural safety (freedom, autonomy, growth, access to resources)
• Problem:
o We cannot include all harm in criminology
o Some behaviour is criminalized even if it’s not harmful (e.g. drug use)
o Some harmful behaviour is perfectly legal (e.g. pollution, exploitation)
• Agnew’s Solution
o Robert Agnew says criminology should focus on:
§ “Blameworthy harms that are purposively caused by individuals or legal
entities”
o The act is intentional
o Someone is responsible
o Harm is caused
3. The Three Major Expansions of Criminology
• Criminology expanded beyond “street crime” into three new areas:
1. White-Collar Crime – Edwin Sutherland
• Definition:
o “Crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of
their occupation.”
• Key points:
o Only 2% of prisoners come from the upper class
o Corporate crime costs far more than street crime
o Upper-class crimes are often ignored or treated lightly
o His book criticised the 70 largest US corporations
o Publisher was pressured to anonymise names
Page 2
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
2. State Crime
• Definition:
o Crimes or harms committed by governments or officials that violate:
§ National law
§ International law
§ Human rights
§ Or harm populations
• Examples:
o Genocide
o Torture
o Illegal surveillance
o Political repression
3. Green Criminology
• Studies harm against:
o Animals
o Ecosystems
o Nature
o The biosphere
• Includes:
o Pollution
o Wildlife trafficking
o Climate degradation
o Legal but harmful behaviour
4. How Do Societies Decide What is Criminal?
A. Philosophical Approach (liberty-limiting principles)
• John Stuart Mill – Harm Principle:
o People can only be restricted if they harm others.
• Feinberg added:
o Paternalism – protect people from themselves
o Moralism – ban what society finds immoral
o Offense Principle – ban behaviour that deeply offends others
• Problems:
o What counts as “harm” is subjective
o Societies disagree
o Only a few behaviours are universally condemned:
§ Stealing
§ Violence
§ Lying
§ Incest
Page 3
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
B. Sociological Approach (more realistic)
• Based on symbolic interactionism:
o Herbert Blumer: Meaning comes from interaction
o Thomas Theorem:
§ “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”
• Crime is socially produced, not natural
5. What is Social Construction?
Social norms
• A social norm = A rule that says what people should or should not do in a given situation.
• Norms are created and changed by society
• Large societies can’t constantly redefine → so norms become culture
• Laws are formalised social norms
• To simplify reality, society uses frames
o A frame is a simplified version of complex reality
6. Definition Setting (How norms and crimes are decided)
• This is a continuous process of deciding what is “normal” or “deviant”.
Who defines norms?
• Politicians
• Institutions
• Media & social media
• Religious groups
• Scientists
• Corporations
• Activists
Problems:
• Power is unequal:
o Rich and powerful groups influence laws more
o Marginalised groups have less voice
• Increased complexity due to:
o Globalisation
o Digital bubbles (echo chambers)
o Social media influence
Page 4
2025-2026
Week 1 – Introduction to Criminology & Social Construction
1. What is the Object of Study in Criminology?
• Criminology has never had one universally accepted definition of what it should study.
Instead, there are ongoing debates about what counts as criminological knowledge.
Main debates:
• Should criminology study only crimes in the criminal law?
• Should it also study:
o Corporate crime
o State crime
o Environmental harm
o Uncriminalized but harmful behaviour?
• Should criminology focus:
o Only on individuals?
o Or also on corporations, governments, and ecosystems?
• Key idea: Crime is not a fixed or “natural” category — it is socially, politically and historically
constructed.
Mainstream view (Van Dijk)
• Criminology =
o “The science that studies the nature and causes of human behaviour that violates
criminal law, and society’s reactions to it.”
• In practice, mainstream criminology focuses on:
o Street crime
o Property crime
o Violence
o Drug crime
• BUT… this approach is criticized because:
o Many harmful acts are not criminalised
o Administrative/regulatory violations can cause more damage than street crime
o Powerful actors (corporations, states) often avoid criminalization
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
2. The Crime vs Harm Debate
• Many harmful actions are not considered “crime”.
• Types of harm:
o Physical harm
o Financial / economic harm
o Emotional & psychological harm
o Environmental harm
o Harm to cultural safety (freedom, autonomy, growth, access to resources)
• Problem:
o We cannot include all harm in criminology
o Some behaviour is criminalized even if it’s not harmful (e.g. drug use)
o Some harmful behaviour is perfectly legal (e.g. pollution, exploitation)
• Agnew’s Solution
o Robert Agnew says criminology should focus on:
§ “Blameworthy harms that are purposively caused by individuals or legal
entities”
o The act is intentional
o Someone is responsible
o Harm is caused
3. The Three Major Expansions of Criminology
• Criminology expanded beyond “street crime” into three new areas:
1. White-Collar Crime – Edwin Sutherland
• Definition:
o “Crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of
their occupation.”
• Key points:
o Only 2% of prisoners come from the upper class
o Corporate crime costs far more than street crime
o Upper-class crimes are often ignored or treated lightly
o His book criticised the 70 largest US corporations
o Publisher was pressured to anonymise names
Page 2
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
2. State Crime
• Definition:
o Crimes or harms committed by governments or officials that violate:
§ National law
§ International law
§ Human rights
§ Or harm populations
• Examples:
o Genocide
o Torture
o Illegal surveillance
o Political repression
3. Green Criminology
• Studies harm against:
o Animals
o Ecosystems
o Nature
o The biosphere
• Includes:
o Pollution
o Wildlife trafficking
o Climate degradation
o Legal but harmful behaviour
4. How Do Societies Decide What is Criminal?
A. Philosophical Approach (liberty-limiting principles)
• John Stuart Mill – Harm Principle:
o People can only be restricted if they harm others.
• Feinberg added:
o Paternalism – protect people from themselves
o Moralism – ban what society finds immoral
o Offense Principle – ban behaviour that deeply offends others
• Problems:
o What counts as “harm” is subjective
o Societies disagree
o Only a few behaviours are universally condemned:
§ Stealing
§ Violence
§ Lying
§ Incest
Page 3
, Criminology and Criminal Justice
B. Sociological Approach (more realistic)
• Based on symbolic interactionism:
o Herbert Blumer: Meaning comes from interaction
o Thomas Theorem:
§ “If people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.”
• Crime is socially produced, not natural
5. What is Social Construction?
Social norms
• A social norm = A rule that says what people should or should not do in a given situation.
• Norms are created and changed by society
• Large societies can’t constantly redefine → so norms become culture
• Laws are formalised social norms
• To simplify reality, society uses frames
o A frame is a simplified version of complex reality
6. Definition Setting (How norms and crimes are decided)
• This is a continuous process of deciding what is “normal” or “deviant”.
Who defines norms?
• Politicians
• Institutions
• Media & social media
• Religious groups
• Scientists
• Corporations
• Activists
Problems:
• Power is unequal:
o Rich and powerful groups influence laws more
o Marginalised groups have less voice
• Increased complexity due to:
o Globalisation
o Digital bubbles (echo chambers)
o Social media influence
Page 4
