PSYC 355 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY- EXAM PREP
Define Cognition. Why is the study of cognition important? - Answer -The term
cognition refers to our mental activities. It is used to describe how we receive, store,
transform and use knowledge. The term also refers to our memory, language, problem
solving, reasoning and decision making.
In Psychology, cognition can mean mental activity, and it can also refer to a particular
theoretical approach.
Psychology is interested in cognition because humans mental processes are pivotal to
daily life. Almost everything we do requires use of our ability to think, remember, make
decisions and use language. Cognition influences behaviours.
Further, cognitive psychology influences other areas of psychology, for example, a
depressed patient may provide a very brief example when asked to recall a specific
memory, whereas a person who is not depressed tends to describe an extended
memory in more detail. Also, facial recognition in neuropsychology. Finally, Cognitive
Psychology helps us understand our personal mind better and could help us improve
our own performance.
Describe the early history of cognitive psychology, focusing on the contributions of each
of the following:
Wilhelm Wundt
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Mary Calkins
William James
Frederick Bartlett - Answer -Wundt: Most people would consider him the "founder of
psychology". He proposed that psychology should be the study of mental processes, or
"introspection", however the techniques used were very subjective/not scientific.
Ebbinghaus: A German psychologist and the first person to study human memory and
developed factors that may influence memory performance. Used nonsense syllables in
his research. Ebbinghaus also reported the classic forgetting curve, in which there is
rapid forgetting in the first 24 hours, followed by a plateau that persists for months and
even years.
Calkins: Also a memory researcher, but from the U.S. She discovered the recency
effect through her work, which refers to the observation that we best recall the final item
in a list. SHe also emphasized that psychology should study how people use their
cognition in the real world, not just lab. First Woman president of the APA.
James: Was not impressed with introspection and preferred to study everyday
psychological experiences. Best known for his textbook called "Principles of
Psychology", which emphasized that the human mind is active and inquiring.
,Bartlett: A British psychologist who conducted research on human memory. He used
meaningful materials, such as lengthy stories in his research and discovered that
people make errors when recalling stories. He proposed that memory is an active,
constructive process in which we interpret and transform the info we encounter, and
search for meaning while we try to integrate the information so that it is more consistent
with our personal experiences. Bartlett's work was largely ignored in the US because
psychologists were focused on behaviourism.
Define the "information-processing approach" as presented in Matlin. Describe the
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, and explain how it is an example of the information-
processing approach. - Answer -The information processing approach argues that a)
our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer, b) info progresses
through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that memory involves a series of separate steps,
and in each step, info is transferred from one storage area to another. (9) Ex: External
environmental stimuli enters sensory memory and is stored for 2 seconds or less and
most is forgotten. Some of the material in sensory memory passes to short-term
memory (working memory), which holds only the small amount of information currently
and actively using. Momories in short term memory are fragile, but not as fragile as
sensory memory. Only a fraction of info in working memory passes to long-term
memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that info in long-term memory is
relatively permanent. The A-S model's influence has not diminished.
Define "cognitive neuroscience." Briefly describe the following methods used by
neuroscientists:
brain lesions
positron emission tomography (PET)
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
event-related potential (ERP) - Answer -Cognitive neuroscience combines research
techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure
and function of the brain. Ex: areas of the brain activated during specific tasks, and what
kind of cognitive processes we use during interactions with other people (social
cognitive neuroscience).
Brain Lesions: Refers to the destruction of an area of the brain, often by strokes,
tumors, blows to the head and accidents. Studies of legions help to understand the
organization of the brain, but hard to interpret because legions are not limited to only
one area.
PET: The brain uses chemicals (oxygen) to support neural activity, as the brain does
not store oxygen. Blood flow increases in the activated brain site in order to carry
oxygen to the site. PET measures blood flow by injecting a radioactive chemical just
before a cognitive task. Cameras produce images of the accumulated chemical in
specific brain areas. Takes several seconds to produce data, so not very precise.
,fMRI: Do not use radioactive substances. Uses magnetic field to produce changes in
the oxygen atoms, scanning of these atoms takes place during a cognitive task.
Preferred over PET because more precise identification of exact time of sequence of
cognitive tasks. fMRI can also subtle differences in how the brain processes language.
ERP: Event-Related Potential Technique- records the brief fluctuations in the brain's
electrical activity in response to a stimulus, such as an auditory one. Electrodes are
placed on the scalp, which measure the electrical activity generated by a group pf
neurons located directly beneath the scalp. Can measure the activity of a group of
neurons, not single ones.
Identify and describe the five themes of the textbook. - Answer -1) The cognitive
processes are active, rather than passive: Behaviourists believe that humans are
passive, simply waiting for stimuli from the environment. In contrast, cognitive
approaches propose that people actively seek out information. Also, memory is a lively
process involving actively synthesizing and transforming information.
2) The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate: Language
development, material stored in memory, learning..all astonishing.
3) The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information:
We understand sentences better when worded in the affirmative; ie; Mary is honest,
instead of , Mary is not dishonest. We also tend to perform better on pleasant tasks,
rather than unpleasant ones. Our cognitive processes are designed to handle what is,
rather than what is not.
4) The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another: they do not operate in
isolation: All higher mental processes require integration of our more basic cognitive
processes. Problem solving, logical reasoning, decision making are all complex.
5) Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom up and top-down processing: Bottom
up emphasizes the importance of stimuli registered by sensory receptors and uses only
low-level sensory analysis of the stimuli. Top-Down refers to how our concepts,
expectations and memory all influence our cognitive processes.
Describe the "connectionist approach," including the origins of the approach, its basic
characteristics, and reactions to the approach. What are some other names for this
approach? - Answer -The information processing approach cannot explain how we
manage to perform most of our most complex tasks, therefore, the connectionist
approach argues that cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that
link together neuron-like units; in addition, many operations can proceed
simultaneously, rather than one step at a time. For example, there may not be a single
pinpoint area in the brain that is responsible for me remembering someone's name,
rather, this information is distributed throughout the neural networks in the brain. Many
psychologists welcomed the connectionist approach and regarded it as groundbreaking.
, Other names: parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and neural-network
approach.
Origins: 1986, James McClelland and David Rumelhart published a book titled Parallel
Distributed Model.
Serial Processing is one step at a time. Parallel processing, numerous signals handled
at the same time.
Define "perception," and provide an original example of perception. Define "object
recognition," "distal stimulus," and "proximal stimulus." What is sensory memory and the
primary visual cortex? - Answer -Perception: Using previously acquired knowledge to
gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses. An example is using our eyes
to see an outdoor scene , and knowledge previously acquired to organize that stimuli
into recognizing the scene as a wedding.
Object Recognition: Also known as pattern recognition, is when we identify a complex
arrangement of stimuli, and perceive this pattern as separate from its background.
Distal Stimulus: The actual object that is "out there" in the environment ie: pen or lamp
on my desk.
Proximal Stimulus: The information registered on sensory receptors, ie: the image that
the pen on my desk creates on my retina.
The sensory memory is the brains storage system that records information from each of
our senses with reasonable accuracy. The visual sensory memory (aka, iconic
memory), preserves an image for a brief period after the image has disappeared.
Visual stimuli is registered on the retina, then travels though the group of neurons
between the retina and the primary visual cortex known as the visual pathway. The
primary visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe and handles the basic processing of
visual stimuli.
Define and describe "bottom-up processing" and "top-down processing." What other
names are used for these processes? Give original examples of each type of perceptual
processing. - Answer -Bottom-Up Processing. In the bottom-up processing approach,
perception starts at the sensory input, the stimulus. Thus, perception can be described
as data-driven. For example, there is a flower at the center of a person's field.
The physical environmental stimuli are registered on the sensory receptors.
Top-down processing refers to how our brains make use of information that has already
been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems. Top-down
processing is a cognitive process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to
lower-level functions, such as the senses. Emphasizes how a person's concepts,
expectations and memory can influence object recognition. Top Down is higher level
Define Cognition. Why is the study of cognition important? - Answer -The term
cognition refers to our mental activities. It is used to describe how we receive, store,
transform and use knowledge. The term also refers to our memory, language, problem
solving, reasoning and decision making.
In Psychology, cognition can mean mental activity, and it can also refer to a particular
theoretical approach.
Psychology is interested in cognition because humans mental processes are pivotal to
daily life. Almost everything we do requires use of our ability to think, remember, make
decisions and use language. Cognition influences behaviours.
Further, cognitive psychology influences other areas of psychology, for example, a
depressed patient may provide a very brief example when asked to recall a specific
memory, whereas a person who is not depressed tends to describe an extended
memory in more detail. Also, facial recognition in neuropsychology. Finally, Cognitive
Psychology helps us understand our personal mind better and could help us improve
our own performance.
Describe the early history of cognitive psychology, focusing on the contributions of each
of the following:
Wilhelm Wundt
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Mary Calkins
William James
Frederick Bartlett - Answer -Wundt: Most people would consider him the "founder of
psychology". He proposed that psychology should be the study of mental processes, or
"introspection", however the techniques used were very subjective/not scientific.
Ebbinghaus: A German psychologist and the first person to study human memory and
developed factors that may influence memory performance. Used nonsense syllables in
his research. Ebbinghaus also reported the classic forgetting curve, in which there is
rapid forgetting in the first 24 hours, followed by a plateau that persists for months and
even years.
Calkins: Also a memory researcher, but from the U.S. She discovered the recency
effect through her work, which refers to the observation that we best recall the final item
in a list. SHe also emphasized that psychology should study how people use their
cognition in the real world, not just lab. First Woman president of the APA.
James: Was not impressed with introspection and preferred to study everyday
psychological experiences. Best known for his textbook called "Principles of
Psychology", which emphasized that the human mind is active and inquiring.
,Bartlett: A British psychologist who conducted research on human memory. He used
meaningful materials, such as lengthy stories in his research and discovered that
people make errors when recalling stories. He proposed that memory is an active,
constructive process in which we interpret and transform the info we encounter, and
search for meaning while we try to integrate the information so that it is more consistent
with our personal experiences. Bartlett's work was largely ignored in the US because
psychologists were focused on behaviourism.
Define the "information-processing approach" as presented in Matlin. Describe the
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, and explain how it is an example of the information-
processing approach. - Answer -The information processing approach argues that a)
our mental processes are similar to the operations of a computer, b) info progresses
through our cognitive system in a series of stages, one step at a time.
The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that memory involves a series of separate steps,
and in each step, info is transferred from one storage area to another. (9) Ex: External
environmental stimuli enters sensory memory and is stored for 2 seconds or less and
most is forgotten. Some of the material in sensory memory passes to short-term
memory (working memory), which holds only the small amount of information currently
and actively using. Momories in short term memory are fragile, but not as fragile as
sensory memory. Only a fraction of info in working memory passes to long-term
memory. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model proposes that info in long-term memory is
relatively permanent. The A-S model's influence has not diminished.
Define "cognitive neuroscience." Briefly describe the following methods used by
neuroscientists:
brain lesions
positron emission tomography (PET)
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
event-related potential (ERP) - Answer -Cognitive neuroscience combines research
techniques of cognitive psychology with various methods for assessing the structure
and function of the brain. Ex: areas of the brain activated during specific tasks, and what
kind of cognitive processes we use during interactions with other people (social
cognitive neuroscience).
Brain Lesions: Refers to the destruction of an area of the brain, often by strokes,
tumors, blows to the head and accidents. Studies of legions help to understand the
organization of the brain, but hard to interpret because legions are not limited to only
one area.
PET: The brain uses chemicals (oxygen) to support neural activity, as the brain does
not store oxygen. Blood flow increases in the activated brain site in order to carry
oxygen to the site. PET measures blood flow by injecting a radioactive chemical just
before a cognitive task. Cameras produce images of the accumulated chemical in
specific brain areas. Takes several seconds to produce data, so not very precise.
,fMRI: Do not use radioactive substances. Uses magnetic field to produce changes in
the oxygen atoms, scanning of these atoms takes place during a cognitive task.
Preferred over PET because more precise identification of exact time of sequence of
cognitive tasks. fMRI can also subtle differences in how the brain processes language.
ERP: Event-Related Potential Technique- records the brief fluctuations in the brain's
electrical activity in response to a stimulus, such as an auditory one. Electrodes are
placed on the scalp, which measure the electrical activity generated by a group pf
neurons located directly beneath the scalp. Can measure the activity of a group of
neurons, not single ones.
Identify and describe the five themes of the textbook. - Answer -1) The cognitive
processes are active, rather than passive: Behaviourists believe that humans are
passive, simply waiting for stimuli from the environment. In contrast, cognitive
approaches propose that people actively seek out information. Also, memory is a lively
process involving actively synthesizing and transforming information.
2) The cognitive processes are remarkably efficient and accurate: Language
development, material stored in memory, learning..all astonishing.
3) The cognitive processes handle positive information better than negative information:
We understand sentences better when worded in the affirmative; ie; Mary is honest,
instead of , Mary is not dishonest. We also tend to perform better on pleasant tasks,
rather than unpleasant ones. Our cognitive processes are designed to handle what is,
rather than what is not.
4) The cognitive processes are interrelated with one another: they do not operate in
isolation: All higher mental processes require integration of our more basic cognitive
processes. Problem solving, logical reasoning, decision making are all complex.
5) Many cognitive processes rely on both bottom up and top-down processing: Bottom
up emphasizes the importance of stimuli registered by sensory receptors and uses only
low-level sensory analysis of the stimuli. Top-Down refers to how our concepts,
expectations and memory all influence our cognitive processes.
Describe the "connectionist approach," including the origins of the approach, its basic
characteristics, and reactions to the approach. What are some other names for this
approach? - Answer -The information processing approach cannot explain how we
manage to perform most of our most complex tasks, therefore, the connectionist
approach argues that cognitive processes can be understood in terms of networks that
link together neuron-like units; in addition, many operations can proceed
simultaneously, rather than one step at a time. For example, there may not be a single
pinpoint area in the brain that is responsible for me remembering someone's name,
rather, this information is distributed throughout the neural networks in the brain. Many
psychologists welcomed the connectionist approach and regarded it as groundbreaking.
, Other names: parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach and neural-network
approach.
Origins: 1986, James McClelland and David Rumelhart published a book titled Parallel
Distributed Model.
Serial Processing is one step at a time. Parallel processing, numerous signals handled
at the same time.
Define "perception," and provide an original example of perception. Define "object
recognition," "distal stimulus," and "proximal stimulus." What is sensory memory and the
primary visual cortex? - Answer -Perception: Using previously acquired knowledge to
gather and interpret the stimuli registered by the senses. An example is using our eyes
to see an outdoor scene , and knowledge previously acquired to organize that stimuli
into recognizing the scene as a wedding.
Object Recognition: Also known as pattern recognition, is when we identify a complex
arrangement of stimuli, and perceive this pattern as separate from its background.
Distal Stimulus: The actual object that is "out there" in the environment ie: pen or lamp
on my desk.
Proximal Stimulus: The information registered on sensory receptors, ie: the image that
the pen on my desk creates on my retina.
The sensory memory is the brains storage system that records information from each of
our senses with reasonable accuracy. The visual sensory memory (aka, iconic
memory), preserves an image for a brief period after the image has disappeared.
Visual stimuli is registered on the retina, then travels though the group of neurons
between the retina and the primary visual cortex known as the visual pathway. The
primary visual cortex is located in the occipital lobe and handles the basic processing of
visual stimuli.
Define and describe "bottom-up processing" and "top-down processing." What other
names are used for these processes? Give original examples of each type of perceptual
processing. - Answer -Bottom-Up Processing. In the bottom-up processing approach,
perception starts at the sensory input, the stimulus. Thus, perception can be described
as data-driven. For example, there is a flower at the center of a person's field.
The physical environmental stimuli are registered on the sensory receptors.
Top-down processing refers to how our brains make use of information that has already
been brought into the brain by one or more of the sensory systems. Top-down
processing is a cognitive process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to
lower-level functions, such as the senses. Emphasizes how a person's concepts,
expectations and memory can influence object recognition. Top Down is higher level
