1. Q: What is the normal cardiac output in adults? ANSWER Normal
cardiac output is 4-8 L/min, with an average of 5 L/min in adults at rest.
2. Q: What is the formula for calculating cardiac output? ANSWER
Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV)
3. Q: What are the layers of the heart from innermost to outermost?
ANSWER Endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium (visceral pericardium).
4. Q: What is preload? ANSWER Preload is the volume of blood in the
ventricles at the end of diastole, representing the stretch of cardiac muscle fibers
before contraction.
5. Q: What is afterload? ANSWER Afterload is the resistance the left
ventricle must overcome to circulate blood, primarily determined by systemic
vascular resistance.
6. Q: What are the classic signs of left-sided heart failure? ANSWER
Dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, pulmonary crackles, cough
with frothy sputum, and fatigue.
7. Q: What are the classic signs of right-sided heart failure? ANSWER
Peripheral edema, jugular venous distension, hepatomegaly, ascites, and weight
gain.
8. Q: What is the most common cause of heart failure? ANSWER
Coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction are the most common causes.
9. Q: What medications are considered first-line for heart failure with
reduced ejection fraction? ANSWER ACE inhibitors or ARBs, beta-
blockers, and aldosterone antagonists.
10. Q: What is a normal ejection fraction? ANSWER Normal ejection
fraction is 55-70%.
,11. Q: What ECG changes indicate myocardial infarction? ANSWER ST-
segment elevation, T-wave inversion, and the development of pathological Q
waves.
12. Q: What are the cardiac biomarkers used to diagnose MI? ANSWER
Troponin I and T (most specific), CK-MB, and myoglobin.
13. Q: When do troponin levels peak after MI? ANSWER Troponin levels
rise within 3-4 hours, peak at 24-48 hours, and remain elevated for 7-10 days.
14. Q: What is the difference between STEMI and NSTEMI? ANSWER
STEMI shows ST-segment elevation indicating complete coronary occlusion;
NSTEMI shows partial occlusion without ST elevation.
15. Q: What is the priority intervention for STEMI? ANSWER Immediate
reperfusion therapy via percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or fibrinolytic
therapy within 90 minutes of presentation.
16. Q: What does the acronym MONA stand for in acute MI management?
ANSWER Morphine, Oxygen (if needed), Nitroglycerin, and Aspirin.
17. Q: What are the contraindications for fibrinolytic therapy? ANSWER
Active bleeding, recent surgery, history of hemorrhagic stroke, severe
uncontrolled hypertension, and bleeding disorders.
18. Q: What is angina pectoris? ANSWER Chest pain caused by insufficient
blood flow and oxygen to the myocardium, typically during exertion.
19. Q: What characterizes stable angina? ANSWER Predictable chest pain
with exertion, relieved by rest or nitroglycerin within 5 minutes.
20. Q: What characterizes unstable angina? ANSWER Chest pain at rest,
increasing frequency or severity, new onset, or not relieved by nitroglycerin.
21. Q: What are the risk factors for coronary artery disease? ANSWER
Hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle,
family history, and age.
22. Q: What is the therapeutic target for LDL cholesterol in CAD patients?
ANSWER LDL should be less than 70 mg/dL in high-risk patients.
23. Q: What is hypertension defined as? ANSWER Systolic BP ≥130
mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥80 mmHg on two or more occasions.
24. Q: What is a hypertensive crisis? ANSWER BP >180/120 mmHg with
or without target organ damage.
, 25. Q: What is the difference between hypertensive urgency and
emergency? ANSWER Urgency has elevated BP without organ damage;
emergency has elevated BP with acute organ damage.
26. Q: What are complications of uncontrolled hypertension? ANSWER
Stroke, MI, heart failure, kidney disease, retinopathy, and peripheral vascular
disease.
27. Q: What lifestyle modifications are recommended for hypertension?
ANSWER DASH diet, sodium restriction, weight loss, regular exercise, limited
alcohol, and smoking cessation.
28. Q: What is atrial fibrillation? ANSWER An irregular, rapid heart rhythm
originating from chaotic electrical signals in the atria.
29. Q: What are the main complications of atrial fibrillation? ANSWER
Stroke due to thrombus formation and heart failure.
30. Q: What is the CHA2DS2-VASc score used for? ANSWER To assess
stroke risk in atrial fibrillation patients and guide anticoagulation therapy.
31. Q: What medications are used for rate control in atrial fibrillation?
ANSWER Beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers (diltiazem, verapamil), and
digoxin.
32. Q: What is cardioversion? ANSWER The conversion of an abnormal
heart rhythm to normal sinus rhythm using electrical shock or medications.
33. Q: What is an aortic aneurysm? ANSWER A localized dilation of the
aorta greater than 50% of normal diameter.
34. Q: What are signs of aortic dissection? ANSWER Sudden, severe
"tearing" chest or back pain, blood pressure differences between arms, and pulse
deficits.
35. Q: What is peripheral arterial disease (PAD)? ANSWER
Atherosclerotic occlusive disease of the lower extremities causing reduced
blood flow.
36. Q: What is intermittent claudication? ANSWER Leg pain or cramping
that occurs with walking and is relieved by rest, characteristic of PAD.
37. Q: What is the ankle-brachial index (ABI)? ANSWER A ratio
comparing blood pressure in the ankle to the arm; normal is 1.0-1.4; <0.9
indicates PAD.
cardiac output is 4-8 L/min, with an average of 5 L/min in adults at rest.
2. Q: What is the formula for calculating cardiac output? ANSWER
Cardiac Output (CO) = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV)
3. Q: What are the layers of the heart from innermost to outermost?
ANSWER Endocardium, myocardium, and epicardium (visceral pericardium).
4. Q: What is preload? ANSWER Preload is the volume of blood in the
ventricles at the end of diastole, representing the stretch of cardiac muscle fibers
before contraction.
5. Q: What is afterload? ANSWER Afterload is the resistance the left
ventricle must overcome to circulate blood, primarily determined by systemic
vascular resistance.
6. Q: What are the classic signs of left-sided heart failure? ANSWER
Dyspnea, orthopnea, paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea, pulmonary crackles, cough
with frothy sputum, and fatigue.
7. Q: What are the classic signs of right-sided heart failure? ANSWER
Peripheral edema, jugular venous distension, hepatomegaly, ascites, and weight
gain.
8. Q: What is the most common cause of heart failure? ANSWER
Coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction are the most common causes.
9. Q: What medications are considered first-line for heart failure with
reduced ejection fraction? ANSWER ACE inhibitors or ARBs, beta-
blockers, and aldosterone antagonists.
10. Q: What is a normal ejection fraction? ANSWER Normal ejection
fraction is 55-70%.
,11. Q: What ECG changes indicate myocardial infarction? ANSWER ST-
segment elevation, T-wave inversion, and the development of pathological Q
waves.
12. Q: What are the cardiac biomarkers used to diagnose MI? ANSWER
Troponin I and T (most specific), CK-MB, and myoglobin.
13. Q: When do troponin levels peak after MI? ANSWER Troponin levels
rise within 3-4 hours, peak at 24-48 hours, and remain elevated for 7-10 days.
14. Q: What is the difference between STEMI and NSTEMI? ANSWER
STEMI shows ST-segment elevation indicating complete coronary occlusion;
NSTEMI shows partial occlusion without ST elevation.
15. Q: What is the priority intervention for STEMI? ANSWER Immediate
reperfusion therapy via percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or fibrinolytic
therapy within 90 minutes of presentation.
16. Q: What does the acronym MONA stand for in acute MI management?
ANSWER Morphine, Oxygen (if needed), Nitroglycerin, and Aspirin.
17. Q: What are the contraindications for fibrinolytic therapy? ANSWER
Active bleeding, recent surgery, history of hemorrhagic stroke, severe
uncontrolled hypertension, and bleeding disorders.
18. Q: What is angina pectoris? ANSWER Chest pain caused by insufficient
blood flow and oxygen to the myocardium, typically during exertion.
19. Q: What characterizes stable angina? ANSWER Predictable chest pain
with exertion, relieved by rest or nitroglycerin within 5 minutes.
20. Q: What characterizes unstable angina? ANSWER Chest pain at rest,
increasing frequency or severity, new onset, or not relieved by nitroglycerin.
21. Q: What are the risk factors for coronary artery disease? ANSWER
Hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes, smoking, obesity, sedentary lifestyle,
family history, and age.
22. Q: What is the therapeutic target for LDL cholesterol in CAD patients?
ANSWER LDL should be less than 70 mg/dL in high-risk patients.
23. Q: What is hypertension defined as? ANSWER Systolic BP ≥130
mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥80 mmHg on two or more occasions.
24. Q: What is a hypertensive crisis? ANSWER BP >180/120 mmHg with
or without target organ damage.
, 25. Q: What is the difference between hypertensive urgency and
emergency? ANSWER Urgency has elevated BP without organ damage;
emergency has elevated BP with acute organ damage.
26. Q: What are complications of uncontrolled hypertension? ANSWER
Stroke, MI, heart failure, kidney disease, retinopathy, and peripheral vascular
disease.
27. Q: What lifestyle modifications are recommended for hypertension?
ANSWER DASH diet, sodium restriction, weight loss, regular exercise, limited
alcohol, and smoking cessation.
28. Q: What is atrial fibrillation? ANSWER An irregular, rapid heart rhythm
originating from chaotic electrical signals in the atria.
29. Q: What are the main complications of atrial fibrillation? ANSWER
Stroke due to thrombus formation and heart failure.
30. Q: What is the CHA2DS2-VASc score used for? ANSWER To assess
stroke risk in atrial fibrillation patients and guide anticoagulation therapy.
31. Q: What medications are used for rate control in atrial fibrillation?
ANSWER Beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers (diltiazem, verapamil), and
digoxin.
32. Q: What is cardioversion? ANSWER The conversion of an abnormal
heart rhythm to normal sinus rhythm using electrical shock or medications.
33. Q: What is an aortic aneurysm? ANSWER A localized dilation of the
aorta greater than 50% of normal diameter.
34. Q: What are signs of aortic dissection? ANSWER Sudden, severe
"tearing" chest or back pain, blood pressure differences between arms, and pulse
deficits.
35. Q: What is peripheral arterial disease (PAD)? ANSWER
Atherosclerotic occlusive disease of the lower extremities causing reduced
blood flow.
36. Q: What is intermittent claudication? ANSWER Leg pain or cramping
that occurs with walking and is relieved by rest, characteristic of PAD.
37. Q: What is the ankle-brachial index (ABI)? ANSWER A ratio
comparing blood pressure in the ankle to the arm; normal is 1.0-1.4; <0.9
indicates PAD.
