Summary Cognitive Neuroscience
Book: Principles of Cogni2ve Neuroscience, 2nd edi2on
Lecture 1: Chapter 1 & 2
Chapter 1: Cogni4ve Neuroscience: Defini4ons, Themes, and Approaches
Introduc)on
Cogni&ve neuroscience = merging of neuroscience and cogni&ve science. Integrates inves&ga&ons of brain
structure and func&on and seeks to measure cogni&ve abili&es and behavior to understand how the human
brain works.
Cogni)on
Cogni&on = the faculty of knowing (La&n). Refers to a set of processes that allow humans to perceive
external s&muli, to extract key informa&on and hold it in memory, and to generate thoughts and ac&ons
that help reach desired goals à cogni&ve func&ons.
Many aspects of cogni&on and behavior occur without conscious experience.
Mind vs. cogni&on:
- Mind = the subjec&ve sense of the self.
- Cogni&on/ cogni&ve func&ons = informa&on processing studied by cogni&ve neuroscien&sts.
In the 19th century the first “psychologists” built models of mental processes.
Behaviorism: a new emphasis on highly controlled experiments that matched objec&ve external s&muli to
measurable behavior. Behaviorism rejected subjec&ve work on mental func&ons.
Skinner’s operant condi&oning led to an interest in reinforcing or discouraging specific behaviors.
Behaviorists focused only on learning (“opera&onism”) and ignored other cogni&ve func&ons.
George Miller (1950s): immediate memory = people can represent only 7 unique items at one &me. More
complex s&muli must be recoded into smaller units for cogni&ve processing. Memory according to Miller is
an ac&ve recoding of the informa&on that s&muli carry.
Chomsky (1959) argued in a review of Skinner’s book that behaviorism could never explain the structural
and genera&ve proper&es of mental phenomena (such as human language). Encouraged by these cri&cisms
psychologists began to involve more human par&cipants (instead of only animals) in their research and
inves&gate high-level, conscious processes.
Cogni&ve science (research on mental processes) has since become a large and independent study field.
Cogni&ve models predict how sensory input leads to some behavioral output. The elements of cogni&ve
models are called psychological constructs.
,Neuroscience
Neuroscience = how nervous systems are organized and how they func&on.
Early 19th century physicians with a scien&fic bent became interested in the func&onal proper&es of the
cerebral cortex. It was known that damage to the cerebrum led to a variety of effects. However, some
individuals seemed li[le affected by cerebral damage, while others had selec&ve deficits of one faculty, and
s&ll others were greatly impaired by what seemed minimal damage.
Franz Joseph Gall: differences in cogni&ve func&ons and personality traits among individuals were
associated with different parts of the cerebral cortex. The size of the cerebral cortex could be mapped by
measuring bumps on the skull.
à Led to phrenology: detailed maps of the cerebral cortex that assigned different func&ons and traits to
different parts of the cortex. Although phrenology faded as it became clear that measurements of the skull
made by Gall had no rela&on to the underlying structure of the brain, it introduced the idea that different
parts of the brain contribute to different sorts of informa&on processing: localiza&on of func&on.
The iden&fica&on of neurons was a major turning point: implied that cogni&ve processes are carried out by
large popula&ons of neurons. Signals are transmi[ed long distances along axons by ac&on poten&als.
Early 20th century researchers could track changes in these electric
signals. They also began to explore neurotransmi[ers: chemical
substances that are released by the terminals of neuronal axons
(synapses). The neurotransmi[ers then bind to receptor molecules
on the target neuron, altering the membrane poten&al. This is how
informa&on travels between cells in nervous systems.
The processes of neurons require energy, which they derive from
oxygen and metabolites supplied by the vascular system à
measurements of increased energy consump&on and blood flow in
ac&ve brain areas provide the bases for imaging methods.
Through electrical s&mula&on, Penfield created a systema&c map of the somatosensory cortex ().
Cogni)ve Neuroscience: The Neurobiological Approach to Cogni)on
Cogni&ve neuroscience = intersec&on of cogni&ve science and neuroscience. Combines measuring brain
func&on with trying to assess cogni&on and behavior + the complexi&es of trying to link them together.
à Interdisciplinary nature can cause problems: misconcep&on that cogni&ve neuroscience simply maps
the brain regions that are ac&vated during a psychological process (neural correlates of cogni&on). Neural
correlates do play an important role, but cogni&ve neuroscience goes well beyond just crea&ng these maps.
Current research: combining informa&on about brain structure and func&on to create neurobiologically
grounded models of cogni&on.
Also studies of individual differences in cogni&ve abili&es, understanding neural bases for both typical and
atypical cogni&on at any stage of the human life span.
,Methods: Convergence and Complementarity
Combining cogni&ve science and neuroscience à many research techniques. The experimental and
methodological diversity has two cri&cal advantages:
- Convergence: combining results from mul&ple experimental paradigms to illuminate a single
theore&cal concept. Convergence is ocen facilitated by meta-analy&c methods.
- Complementarity: each research method provides a different sort of informa&on about brain
func&on. Brain func&on is expressed through many diverse physiological changes à many research
methods that provide insight into different aspects of physiology like fMRI, EEG, PET, TMS, etc.
none of these techniques alone provide a complete accoun&ng of brain func&on. Each technique
carries dis&nct strengths and limita&ons.
Box 1A: Convergence trough Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis = combining informa&on across mul&ple studies.
3 primary approaches to meta-analysis:
1. Qualita&ve meta-analysis: first iden&fying a comprehensive set of studies on the same cogni&ve
func&on and then looking for similari&es among their results (used most).
2. Quan&ta&ve meta-analysis: combine results from mul&ple studies into a single sta&s&cal
framework (mostly for MRI and fMRI data).
3. Seman&c/ ontological meta-analysis: combine studies according to similarity in their underlying
concepts. Applying meta-analy&c methods to text contents and cita&ons. Using pa[erns of co-
cita&ons or of co-occurrences of terms in ar&cles to iden&fy rela&onships between concepts à
seman&c maps of the literature.
, Chapter 2: The Methods of Cogni4ve Neuroscience
Introduc)on
Two categories of neuroscience-based approaches:
1. Brain perturba&on approach: studying changes in
cogni&ve behavior when the brain has been perturbed in
some way (A). Disturbances of brain func&on due to
clinical brain lesions (stroke, trauma or diseases).
2. Neuromonitoring approach: measuring brain ac&vity
while cogni&ve tasks are being performed (B).
Introductory Box: Early Brain Mapping in Humans
Wilder Penfield: a neurosurgeon, before destroying brain &ssue on pa&ents with epilepsy, he used
electrical s&mula&on to func&onally map the region. Because pa&ents were awake during this procedure,
he was able to observe their responses and ask about what they were experiencing à helped him plan the
surgery so that important brain func&onality could be preserved.
Penfield created maps of the sensory and motor cor&ces à
the homunculus.
A rela&vely large area of the cortex is dedicated to the face
and hands compared to other body parts.
Penfield also found that s&mula&ng the temporal lobe
caused auditory percep&ons and vivid recall of memories.
Brain Perturba)ons That Elucidate Cogni)ve Func)ons
Perturba&ons of the brain that impair cogni&ve func&ons ocen derive from brain damage due to stroke,
trauma or disease, but they can also be induced experimentally.
Perturba&ons imposed by stroke, trauma or disease:
If damage to a brain area disrupts a cogni&ve func&on, it is likely that the damaged region is involved in
some way in the performance of that func&on à clinical-pathological correla&ons. A limita&on with this is
that the brain damage is the result of many factors that are not under the control of the experimenter.
Lesion studies also present problems: the brain is highly interconnected à if one area is lesioned, other
areas innervated by the damaged area may also cease to func&on normally à diaschisis. This can lead to
wrongly a[ribu&ng the lost func&onality to the lesioned area rather than to the downstream area.
Pharmacological perturba&ons:
Using psychoac&ve drugs to influence cogni&ve func&ons (caffeine, cocaine, an&depressants, etc.).
Book: Principles of Cogni2ve Neuroscience, 2nd edi2on
Lecture 1: Chapter 1 & 2
Chapter 1: Cogni4ve Neuroscience: Defini4ons, Themes, and Approaches
Introduc)on
Cogni&ve neuroscience = merging of neuroscience and cogni&ve science. Integrates inves&ga&ons of brain
structure and func&on and seeks to measure cogni&ve abili&es and behavior to understand how the human
brain works.
Cogni)on
Cogni&on = the faculty of knowing (La&n). Refers to a set of processes that allow humans to perceive
external s&muli, to extract key informa&on and hold it in memory, and to generate thoughts and ac&ons
that help reach desired goals à cogni&ve func&ons.
Many aspects of cogni&on and behavior occur without conscious experience.
Mind vs. cogni&on:
- Mind = the subjec&ve sense of the self.
- Cogni&on/ cogni&ve func&ons = informa&on processing studied by cogni&ve neuroscien&sts.
In the 19th century the first “psychologists” built models of mental processes.
Behaviorism: a new emphasis on highly controlled experiments that matched objec&ve external s&muli to
measurable behavior. Behaviorism rejected subjec&ve work on mental func&ons.
Skinner’s operant condi&oning led to an interest in reinforcing or discouraging specific behaviors.
Behaviorists focused only on learning (“opera&onism”) and ignored other cogni&ve func&ons.
George Miller (1950s): immediate memory = people can represent only 7 unique items at one &me. More
complex s&muli must be recoded into smaller units for cogni&ve processing. Memory according to Miller is
an ac&ve recoding of the informa&on that s&muli carry.
Chomsky (1959) argued in a review of Skinner’s book that behaviorism could never explain the structural
and genera&ve proper&es of mental phenomena (such as human language). Encouraged by these cri&cisms
psychologists began to involve more human par&cipants (instead of only animals) in their research and
inves&gate high-level, conscious processes.
Cogni&ve science (research on mental processes) has since become a large and independent study field.
Cogni&ve models predict how sensory input leads to some behavioral output. The elements of cogni&ve
models are called psychological constructs.
,Neuroscience
Neuroscience = how nervous systems are organized and how they func&on.
Early 19th century physicians with a scien&fic bent became interested in the func&onal proper&es of the
cerebral cortex. It was known that damage to the cerebrum led to a variety of effects. However, some
individuals seemed li[le affected by cerebral damage, while others had selec&ve deficits of one faculty, and
s&ll others were greatly impaired by what seemed minimal damage.
Franz Joseph Gall: differences in cogni&ve func&ons and personality traits among individuals were
associated with different parts of the cerebral cortex. The size of the cerebral cortex could be mapped by
measuring bumps on the skull.
à Led to phrenology: detailed maps of the cerebral cortex that assigned different func&ons and traits to
different parts of the cortex. Although phrenology faded as it became clear that measurements of the skull
made by Gall had no rela&on to the underlying structure of the brain, it introduced the idea that different
parts of the brain contribute to different sorts of informa&on processing: localiza&on of func&on.
The iden&fica&on of neurons was a major turning point: implied that cogni&ve processes are carried out by
large popula&ons of neurons. Signals are transmi[ed long distances along axons by ac&on poten&als.
Early 20th century researchers could track changes in these electric
signals. They also began to explore neurotransmi[ers: chemical
substances that are released by the terminals of neuronal axons
(synapses). The neurotransmi[ers then bind to receptor molecules
on the target neuron, altering the membrane poten&al. This is how
informa&on travels between cells in nervous systems.
The processes of neurons require energy, which they derive from
oxygen and metabolites supplied by the vascular system à
measurements of increased energy consump&on and blood flow in
ac&ve brain areas provide the bases for imaging methods.
Through electrical s&mula&on, Penfield created a systema&c map of the somatosensory cortex ().
Cogni)ve Neuroscience: The Neurobiological Approach to Cogni)on
Cogni&ve neuroscience = intersec&on of cogni&ve science and neuroscience. Combines measuring brain
func&on with trying to assess cogni&on and behavior + the complexi&es of trying to link them together.
à Interdisciplinary nature can cause problems: misconcep&on that cogni&ve neuroscience simply maps
the brain regions that are ac&vated during a psychological process (neural correlates of cogni&on). Neural
correlates do play an important role, but cogni&ve neuroscience goes well beyond just crea&ng these maps.
Current research: combining informa&on about brain structure and func&on to create neurobiologically
grounded models of cogni&on.
Also studies of individual differences in cogni&ve abili&es, understanding neural bases for both typical and
atypical cogni&on at any stage of the human life span.
,Methods: Convergence and Complementarity
Combining cogni&ve science and neuroscience à many research techniques. The experimental and
methodological diversity has two cri&cal advantages:
- Convergence: combining results from mul&ple experimental paradigms to illuminate a single
theore&cal concept. Convergence is ocen facilitated by meta-analy&c methods.
- Complementarity: each research method provides a different sort of informa&on about brain
func&on. Brain func&on is expressed through many diverse physiological changes à many research
methods that provide insight into different aspects of physiology like fMRI, EEG, PET, TMS, etc.
none of these techniques alone provide a complete accoun&ng of brain func&on. Each technique
carries dis&nct strengths and limita&ons.
Box 1A: Convergence trough Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis = combining informa&on across mul&ple studies.
3 primary approaches to meta-analysis:
1. Qualita&ve meta-analysis: first iden&fying a comprehensive set of studies on the same cogni&ve
func&on and then looking for similari&es among their results (used most).
2. Quan&ta&ve meta-analysis: combine results from mul&ple studies into a single sta&s&cal
framework (mostly for MRI and fMRI data).
3. Seman&c/ ontological meta-analysis: combine studies according to similarity in their underlying
concepts. Applying meta-analy&c methods to text contents and cita&ons. Using pa[erns of co-
cita&ons or of co-occurrences of terms in ar&cles to iden&fy rela&onships between concepts à
seman&c maps of the literature.
, Chapter 2: The Methods of Cogni4ve Neuroscience
Introduc)on
Two categories of neuroscience-based approaches:
1. Brain perturba&on approach: studying changes in
cogni&ve behavior when the brain has been perturbed in
some way (A). Disturbances of brain func&on due to
clinical brain lesions (stroke, trauma or diseases).
2. Neuromonitoring approach: measuring brain ac&vity
while cogni&ve tasks are being performed (B).
Introductory Box: Early Brain Mapping in Humans
Wilder Penfield: a neurosurgeon, before destroying brain &ssue on pa&ents with epilepsy, he used
electrical s&mula&on to func&onally map the region. Because pa&ents were awake during this procedure,
he was able to observe their responses and ask about what they were experiencing à helped him plan the
surgery so that important brain func&onality could be preserved.
Penfield created maps of the sensory and motor cor&ces à
the homunculus.
A rela&vely large area of the cortex is dedicated to the face
and hands compared to other body parts.
Penfield also found that s&mula&ng the temporal lobe
caused auditory percep&ons and vivid recall of memories.
Brain Perturba)ons That Elucidate Cogni)ve Func)ons
Perturba&ons of the brain that impair cogni&ve func&ons ocen derive from brain damage due to stroke,
trauma or disease, but they can also be induced experimentally.
Perturba&ons imposed by stroke, trauma or disease:
If damage to a brain area disrupts a cogni&ve func&on, it is likely that the damaged region is involved in
some way in the performance of that func&on à clinical-pathological correla&ons. A limita&on with this is
that the brain damage is the result of many factors that are not under the control of the experimenter.
Lesion studies also present problems: the brain is highly interconnected à if one area is lesioned, other
areas innervated by the damaged area may also cease to func&on normally à diaschisis. This can lead to
wrongly a[ribu&ng the lost func&onality to the lesioned area rather than to the downstream area.
Pharmacological perturba&ons:
Using psychoac&ve drugs to influence cogni&ve func&ons (caffeine, cocaine, an&depressants, etc.).
