European Union Governance in an International Context
By J.Y.M & L.M.A.
2024-2025
,HC1 & 2 - History of European Integration
Before and During the War
Nation states vs Europe
- Victor Hugo’s vision of seamless travel across European cities, symbolizing unity.
→ As within one country.
- The United States as a model of:
- Federalism: In a federal structure, individual states maintain autonomy while
cooperating under an overarching national government. The question arose
whether Europe could adopt a similar model, in which nation-states would
partially relinquish their sovereignty to ensure economic, social, and political
stability.
- Continental power: European nations wanted the same collective ability for
global power.
After WWI, "war to end all wars": Pan-Europa Movement advocating European
federalism to prevent war. → "United States of Europe."
- The First World War (1914–1918)/ "the war to end all wars," highlighted the
destructive power of nationalism and militarism. In the aftermath of the war, the Pan-
European Movement (1923) was founded by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi. This
movement advocated for a united Europe as a solution to war and conflict,
emphasizing cooperation among democracies.
Winston Churchill during WWII: Advocating for European integration to prevent
conflict, especially between major powers like Germany and France. → Example:
treaty of Dunkirk
Resistance against Nazi Germany: Foundation post war collaboration.
David Mitrany: British political scientist, developed the concept of functionalism during and
after the Second World War. He proposed that cooperation in functional areas such as trade,
infrastructure & technology promote political unity. He believed that practical collaboration in
specific fields would foster cross-border trust, ultimately leading to lasting peace.
After the second world war
1946: Churchill’s speech on a United Europe at Zurich University.
- Advocating for a “United States of Europe” to ensure a lasting peace.
1947: Treaty of Dunkirk signed (1947 march)
- In case of threat France and Britain will unite as one. (military)
1948: Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) established.
- It coordinated U.S. financial aid under the Marshall Plan. By distributing aid
collectively rather than individually, the OEEC stimulated cooperation among
European nations and laid the groundwork for economic integration.
1948: Congress of Europe in The Hague
- Considered a federalist congress, chaired by Winston Churchill, advocating
federalism and European unity.
- Provided critical momentum for European integration by envisioning a unified and
cooperative future.
- Three objectives:
, I. Demonstrate existence body of public opinion in support of European unity.
II. To discuss the challenges posed by European unity and propose practical
solutions to governments.
III. To give new impetus to the international publicity campaign.
- Institutions suggested at the Congress: European Centre for Culture, College of
Europe, Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights.
- After the congress, Churchill said in a speech: 'Men will be proud to say, I am a
European.'
1948: Berlin Blockade
- The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, to force the Allies out of the city. It
underscored tensions leading to the Cold War and emphasized the need for a united
Western response (later becoming NATO).
1948: Treaty of Brussels signed.
- Mutual defense agreement among Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France,
and the UK against threats such as Germany and the Soviet Union. The BeNeLux
nations joined the Treaty of Dunkirk to strengthen Western European defense. It
evolved into the Western European Union after 1954, emphasizing collective
security.
1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed.
- NATO was formed to provide collective security against the threat of Soviet
aggression. Its creation marked a significant step in transatlantic cooperation and
solidified the military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and European nations. It
aimed to deter Soviet expansion and ensure the defense of Western Europe through
mutual commitments and strategic planning.
1949: Statute of the Council of Europe signed.
- It establishes a framework for cooperation in human rights and democracy.
- This led to the creation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) under the
European Convention on Human Rights, which came into force in 1953. The ECtHR
allows individuals to bring cases against their governments for human rights
violations, setting a precedent for human rights protection across Europe.
Founding the European Communities
1950: May 9, Schuman Declaration
- Proposed pooling coal and steel production under a supranational authority to ensure
peace and prevent future wars. The goal was to make war between historical rivals,
such as France and Germany, materially impossible by integrating their economies.
This idea laid to:
1951: Treaty of Paris
- Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
- France, West-Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
1952: European Defence Community (EDC) signed.
- Aimed to create a pan-European military force under supranational control to counter
Soviet aggression and prevent conflict.
- 1954: EDC rejected by the French Parliament due to concerns over national
sovereignty and German rearmament.
1953: Draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC) adopted
- Linked to the EDC: when this failed, so did EPC.
1954: Western European Union (WEU) established.
, - To coordinate European defense and security policies among member states. It
evolved from the Treaty of Brussels and played a role in fostering cooperation during
the Cold War, bridging gap between NATO and European integration efforts.
1955: Western German accession to NATO.
1957: Treaty of Rome
- Created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic
Energy Community (Euratom), they were established in 1958.
- France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
- Marking a shift towards economic integration.
1959: European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established.
- Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.
- EEC versus EFTA: the inner Six against the outer seven.
- Alternative to the European Economic Community (EEC). EFTA focused
solely on free trade without the deeper political integration of the EEC,
creating a divide between the 'inner Six' (EEC members) and the 'outer
Seven' (EFTA members). This division highlighted differing visions of
European cooperation: EEC's pursuit of economic and political union versus
EFTA's preference for economic collaboration only.
Years of crisis
1963: 22 january, The Elysée Treaty signed.
- Franco-German friendship.
- Aims:
- Message of reconciliation
- Groundwork for bilateral cooperation to support European integration.
- 22 january 2019: Aachen treaty signed by France & Germany
- Aims:
- Renew message of reconciliation & Strengthen bilateral cooperation
1963: Membership application of the UK, and Denmark, Ireland and Norway.
- The UK was rejected twice by French President Du Gaulle. (Du Gaulle feared that
british accession would undermine European integration)
- Norway voted against joining in a referendum 1972.
1965: Empty Chair Crisis begins.
- Lasted 7 months.
- A proposal was drawn up for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) that
suggested, in part, majority voting in the Council of Ministers. -
- French President De Gaulle disagreed with the proposal, believing it
threatened national sovereignty.
- On July 1, 1965, France began boycotting the Council of Ministers, effectively
halting decision-making within the EU.
1966: Luxembourg Compromise ends the Empty Chair Crisis.
Luxembourgish Prime Minister Werner proposed the compromise, which was agreed in
January 1966.
Resolved decision-making conflicts in the EU by allowing member states to veto proposals
that threatened its vital national interests. This balance between national sovereignty and
European unity helped prevent further blockades of EU operations. → Still in use.
1973: First enlargement of the EU with the UK, Denmark, and Ireland joining.
1975: First British referendum on EU membership
By J.Y.M & L.M.A.
2024-2025
,HC1 & 2 - History of European Integration
Before and During the War
Nation states vs Europe
- Victor Hugo’s vision of seamless travel across European cities, symbolizing unity.
→ As within one country.
- The United States as a model of:
- Federalism: In a federal structure, individual states maintain autonomy while
cooperating under an overarching national government. The question arose
whether Europe could adopt a similar model, in which nation-states would
partially relinquish their sovereignty to ensure economic, social, and political
stability.
- Continental power: European nations wanted the same collective ability for
global power.
After WWI, "war to end all wars": Pan-Europa Movement advocating European
federalism to prevent war. → "United States of Europe."
- The First World War (1914–1918)/ "the war to end all wars," highlighted the
destructive power of nationalism and militarism. In the aftermath of the war, the Pan-
European Movement (1923) was founded by Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi. This
movement advocated for a united Europe as a solution to war and conflict,
emphasizing cooperation among democracies.
Winston Churchill during WWII: Advocating for European integration to prevent
conflict, especially between major powers like Germany and France. → Example:
treaty of Dunkirk
Resistance against Nazi Germany: Foundation post war collaboration.
David Mitrany: British political scientist, developed the concept of functionalism during and
after the Second World War. He proposed that cooperation in functional areas such as trade,
infrastructure & technology promote political unity. He believed that practical collaboration in
specific fields would foster cross-border trust, ultimately leading to lasting peace.
After the second world war
1946: Churchill’s speech on a United Europe at Zurich University.
- Advocating for a “United States of Europe” to ensure a lasting peace.
1947: Treaty of Dunkirk signed (1947 march)
- In case of threat France and Britain will unite as one. (military)
1948: Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) established.
- It coordinated U.S. financial aid under the Marshall Plan. By distributing aid
collectively rather than individually, the OEEC stimulated cooperation among
European nations and laid the groundwork for economic integration.
1948: Congress of Europe in The Hague
- Considered a federalist congress, chaired by Winston Churchill, advocating
federalism and European unity.
- Provided critical momentum for European integration by envisioning a unified and
cooperative future.
- Three objectives:
, I. Demonstrate existence body of public opinion in support of European unity.
II. To discuss the challenges posed by European unity and propose practical
solutions to governments.
III. To give new impetus to the international publicity campaign.
- Institutions suggested at the Congress: European Centre for Culture, College of
Europe, Council of Europe and the European Convention on Human Rights.
- After the congress, Churchill said in a speech: 'Men will be proud to say, I am a
European.'
1948: Berlin Blockade
- The Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, to force the Allies out of the city. It
underscored tensions leading to the Cold War and emphasized the need for a united
Western response (later becoming NATO).
1948: Treaty of Brussels signed.
- Mutual defense agreement among Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France,
and the UK against threats such as Germany and the Soviet Union. The BeNeLux
nations joined the Treaty of Dunkirk to strengthen Western European defense. It
evolved into the Western European Union after 1954, emphasizing collective
security.
1949: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) signed.
- NATO was formed to provide collective security against the threat of Soviet
aggression. Its creation marked a significant step in transatlantic cooperation and
solidified the military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and European nations. It
aimed to deter Soviet expansion and ensure the defense of Western Europe through
mutual commitments and strategic planning.
1949: Statute of the Council of Europe signed.
- It establishes a framework for cooperation in human rights and democracy.
- This led to the creation of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) under the
European Convention on Human Rights, which came into force in 1953. The ECtHR
allows individuals to bring cases against their governments for human rights
violations, setting a precedent for human rights protection across Europe.
Founding the European Communities
1950: May 9, Schuman Declaration
- Proposed pooling coal and steel production under a supranational authority to ensure
peace and prevent future wars. The goal was to make war between historical rivals,
such as France and Germany, materially impossible by integrating their economies.
This idea laid to:
1951: Treaty of Paris
- Established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC).
- France, West-Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
1952: European Defence Community (EDC) signed.
- Aimed to create a pan-European military force under supranational control to counter
Soviet aggression and prevent conflict.
- 1954: EDC rejected by the French Parliament due to concerns over national
sovereignty and German rearmament.
1953: Draft treaty for a European Political Community (EPC) adopted
- Linked to the EDC: when this failed, so did EPC.
1954: Western European Union (WEU) established.
, - To coordinate European defense and security policies among member states. It
evolved from the Treaty of Brussels and played a role in fostering cooperation during
the Cold War, bridging gap between NATO and European integration efforts.
1955: Western German accession to NATO.
1957: Treaty of Rome
- Created the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic
Energy Community (Euratom), they were established in 1958.
- France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
- Marking a shift towards economic integration.
1959: European Free Trade Association (EFTA) established.
- Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.
- EEC versus EFTA: the inner Six against the outer seven.
- Alternative to the European Economic Community (EEC). EFTA focused
solely on free trade without the deeper political integration of the EEC,
creating a divide between the 'inner Six' (EEC members) and the 'outer
Seven' (EFTA members). This division highlighted differing visions of
European cooperation: EEC's pursuit of economic and political union versus
EFTA's preference for economic collaboration only.
Years of crisis
1963: 22 january, The Elysée Treaty signed.
- Franco-German friendship.
- Aims:
- Message of reconciliation
- Groundwork for bilateral cooperation to support European integration.
- 22 january 2019: Aachen treaty signed by France & Germany
- Aims:
- Renew message of reconciliation & Strengthen bilateral cooperation
1963: Membership application of the UK, and Denmark, Ireland and Norway.
- The UK was rejected twice by French President Du Gaulle. (Du Gaulle feared that
british accession would undermine European integration)
- Norway voted against joining in a referendum 1972.
1965: Empty Chair Crisis begins.
- Lasted 7 months.
- A proposal was drawn up for financing the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) that
suggested, in part, majority voting in the Council of Ministers. -
- French President De Gaulle disagreed with the proposal, believing it
threatened national sovereignty.
- On July 1, 1965, France began boycotting the Council of Ministers, effectively
halting decision-making within the EU.
1966: Luxembourg Compromise ends the Empty Chair Crisis.
Luxembourgish Prime Minister Werner proposed the compromise, which was agreed in
January 1966.
Resolved decision-making conflicts in the EU by allowing member states to veto proposals
that threatened its vital national interests. This balance between national sovereignty and
European unity helped prevent further blockades of EU operations. → Still in use.
1973: First enlargement of the EU with the UK, Denmark, and Ireland joining.
1975: First British referendum on EU membership
