Essentials of Pathophysiology
2026– Final Exam Key Concepts
& Detailed Explanations
Module 1
• Low potassium (Hypokalemia) – Monitor heart.
o Cardiac arrhythmias
o Hypokalemia: muscle weakness, parasthesia, hyporeflexia, leg cramps, weak and
irregular pulse, hypotension, dysrhythmias, electrocardiogram changes, decreased
bowel sounds, abdominal distension, constipation, ileus, and cardiac arrest.
• Catecholamines – Flight or fight response
o Epinephrine
o norepinephrine
o Adrenaline
o Increases HR, increases BP
o tachycardia, increased BP, increases HR, catacholimines, cortisol, epinipherine,
adrenaline, pupil dilation
• Function of Albumin – decrease albumin – ascites
o Albumin- plasma protein, likes water. Takes water with it
o Swelling, no albumin in the blood. proteinuria
o Will have ascites (abdominal swelling)- generalized fluid accumulation in the
wrong places. Generalized swelling. Third spacing.
• Function of Aldosterone
o Sodium and water retention
o Helps to maintain BP
• Different fluid compartments
o Intracellular- fluid inside cells
o Extracellular- fluid outside cells
o Intravascular- inside blood vessels
o Interstitial- between cells
o Transcellular- third spacing
• Causes of edema – increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
o Excess fluid in the interstitial space. Increased capillary hydrostatic
pressure, decrease in plasma protein.
• Sign and symptom
o Symptom- something the patient experiences
o Sign- something you see
• Type 3 hypersensitivity reaction examples
o Immune complex reaction
o Excessive immune body produces auto antibody immune response of the body
, o Ex: rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus, erythematosus, rheumatic fever
• Cause of contact dermatitis
o Contact with allergens
2026– Final Exam Key Concepts
& Detailed Explanations
Module 1
• Low potassium (Hypokalemia) – Monitor heart.
o Cardiac arrhythmias
o Hypokalemia: muscle weakness, parasthesia, hyporeflexia, leg cramps, weak and
irregular pulse, hypotension, dysrhythmias, electrocardiogram changes, decreased
bowel sounds, abdominal distension, constipation, ileus, and cardiac arrest.
• Catecholamines – Flight or fight response
o Epinephrine
o norepinephrine
o Adrenaline
o Increases HR, increases BP
o tachycardia, increased BP, increases HR, catacholimines, cortisol, epinipherine,
adrenaline, pupil dilation
• Function of Albumin – decrease albumin – ascites
o Albumin- plasma protein, likes water. Takes water with it
o Swelling, no albumin in the blood. proteinuria
o Will have ascites (abdominal swelling)- generalized fluid accumulation in the
wrong places. Generalized swelling. Third spacing.
• Function of Aldosterone
o Sodium and water retention
o Helps to maintain BP
• Different fluid compartments
o Intracellular- fluid inside cells
o Extracellular- fluid outside cells
o Intravascular- inside blood vessels
o Interstitial- between cells
o Transcellular- third spacing
• Causes of edema – increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
o Excess fluid in the interstitial space. Increased capillary hydrostatic
pressure, decrease in plasma protein.
• Sign and symptom
o Symptom- something the patient experiences
o Sign- something you see
• Type 3 hypersensitivity reaction examples
o Immune complex reaction
o Excessive immune body produces auto antibody immune response of the body
, o Ex: rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus, erythematosus, rheumatic fever
• Cause of contact dermatitis
o Contact with allergens
