BNKN602 STUDY GUIDE 2025/2026 QUESTIONS AND
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Signs and symptoms of SCI - ✔✔Symptoms depend on the area of injury and
degree of injury, as well as potential for rehabilitation.
-Paralysis from below level of injury.
-Loss of reflexes.
-Loss of bowel, bladder and sexual function.
-Muscle spasm.
-Inability to control body temperature (high risk of hypo or hyperthermia).
-Loss of bone density.
-High risk of pressure injury.
✔✔Signs and symptoms of epilepsy - ✔✔- Changes in behaviour, movements or
feelings
- LOC
✔✔Definition of asthma - ✔✔Recurring inflammation of mucous membranes and
spasms/narrowing of the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchial air passages.
✔✔Definition of COPD - ✔✔A group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it
difficult to breathe
✔✔Definition of pneumonia - ✔✔Acute inflammation of the lungs. Depending on the
cause, the alveoli and bronchi become swollen and plugged with mucous secretions.
✔✔Definition of TB - ✔✔A bacterial infection that most commonly affects the lungs, but
can also affect the lymph nodes, bones, joints and kidneys
✔✔Definition of influenza - ✔✔Acute inflammation of the nasopharynx, trachea and
bronchioles with congestion, oedema and the possibility of necrosis of respiratory
structures
✔✔Definition of PE - ✔✔Blockage of the pulmonary circulation by a thrombus or other
matter
✔✔Definition of IHD - ✔✔Heart problems caused by narrowed heart arteries. When
arteries are narrowed, less blood and oxygen reaches the heart muscle.
✔✔Definition of atherosclerosis - ✔✔The build-up of fats, cholesterol and other
substances in and on the artery walls.
✔✔Definition of angina - ✔✔Chest pain that occurs when the blood supply to the
muscles of your heart are restricted
,✔✔Definition of MI - ✔✔When blood flow to a section of the myocardium becomes
blocked.
✔✔Definition of HF - ✔✔The heart's inability to consistently pump enough blood to
organs and tissues.
✔✔Definition of CKF - ✔✔Progressive irreversible loss of kidney function and
decreased GFR for at least three months.
✔✔Definition of AKI - ✔✔Rapid loss of renal function due to kidney damage
✔✔Definition of ischaemic stroke - ✔✔A blood vessel supplying the brain becomes
blocked
✔✔Definition of haemorrhagic stroke - ✔✔A blood vessel bursts leaking blood into the
brain.
✔✔Definition of TIA - ✔✔A temporary focal loss of neurological function caused by
ischaemia
✔✔Definition of Parkinson's - ✔✔Degenerative disorder of the basal nuclei involving
failure of the neurons that secrete dopamine.
✔✔Definition of meningitis - ✔✔Infection of the meninges, including the pia mater,
arachnoid, subarachnoid space, ventricular system and CSF.
✔✔Definition of epilepsy - ✔✔Characterised by a sudden, uncontrolled electrical
disturbance in the brain
✔✔Definition of TBI - ✔✔A nondegenerative, noncongenital insult to the brain from an
external mechanical force, possibly leading to permanent or temporary impairment of
cognitive, physical, and psychosocial functions, with an associated diminished or altered
state of consciousness.
✔✔Definition of SCI - ✔✔Mechanical disruption to the structure and function of the
spinal cord and spinal nerve pathways caused by a traumatic or non-traumatic injury.
✔✔Pathophysiology of asthma - ✔✔1. Allergen (trigger) such as pollen, exercise,
smoke, dust enters respiratory tract
2. Dendritic cells in epithelial layer engulf pathogen, stimulating immune response
3. Mast cells in bronchial smooth muscle activated and chemical mediators released
,4. Eosinophils stimulated in bone marrow and attracted to local area
5. Vasodilation causes fluid to leak from vasculature into tissues = oedema
6. Airway hyper responsiveness causes bronchospasm
7. Increase mucous from goblet cells further obstructs air entry
8. Gas trapping from bronchoconstriction results in hypercapnia
✔✔Pathophysiology of COPD - ✔✔1. An irritant causes an abnormal inflammatory
response
2. Epithelium becomes chronically inflamed - cilia are destroyed and the ability to
remove mucus is impaired.
3. When activated by chronic inflammation, proteinases and other substances may be
released, damaging the parenchyma of the lung
4. Cytokines (neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes) are released
5. Ongoing bronchial irritation and inflammation
Leaky capillaries - protein rich fluid seeps into alveoli
6. Mucous gland hypertrophy - Mucous production increased - Viscosity of mucus
increases
7. The attachments that support the walls of the small airways apply radial traction.
When radial traction is reduced, small airways collapse causing air trapping and
increased work of breathing
8. Smooth muscle becomes thickened and contracted resulting in bronchconstriction
9. Protease/antiprotease imbalance and decreased elasticity of airways
10. Destruction of alveoli
11. Smaller alveolar sacs merge to become larger inelastic ones, this results in reduced
surface area of the alveolar membrane causing impaired gas exchange.
12. Alveoli become solid due to fluid = consolidation
13. Expiration is difficult due to loss of elastic recoil - impaired gas exchange ↓O2 ↑CO2
Ventilation perfusion imbalance
, ✔✔Pathophysiology of pneumonia - ✔✔1. Bacteria invades spaces between cells &
alveoli
2. Inflammatory response + alveolar macrophages try to control inflection
3. Fluid & mucus buildup in lungs
4. Impaired gas exchange & circulation
5. Ventilation exceeds pulmonary perfusion (V/Q mismatch)
✔✔Pathophysiology of TB - ✔✔1) Mycobacteria inhaled, transmitted to alveoli
2) Mycobacteria also enter lymph system travelling to kidney, bones and cerebral cortex
Inflammatory response stimulated
3) Phagocytes (neutrophils/macrophages) engulf bacteria
4) TB specific lymphocytes destroy bacteria and normal tissue
5) Exudate accumulates in alveoli causing bronchopneumonia
6) Live & dead bacilli form granulomas and form fibrous tissue mass (ghontubercle)
7) Ghontubercle becomes necrotic forming cheesy mass - calcifies or forms scar =
disease dormant
8) If cheesy mass released into alveoli, bacteria becomes airborne on expiration and
spreads
✔✔Pathophysiology of influenza - ✔✔1. Virus enters the respiratory tract attaching to
epithelial cells.
2. Enters host cell and uses host DNA to replicate disease.
3. New viral spores are released from host cell.
4. Destruction/desquamation of trachea and bronchi means on basal layer of epithelium
remains.
5. Damage to epithelial cell wall causes oedema and possibly haemorrhage of
submucosa, leading to cell death.
6. Necrotic cells may undergo phagocytosis by macrophages, recruiting neutrophils.
7. Results in alveolar wall oedema causing ineffective gas exchange.
SOLUTIONS GRADED A+ TIP
✔✔Signs and symptoms of SCI - ✔✔Symptoms depend on the area of injury and
degree of injury, as well as potential for rehabilitation.
-Paralysis from below level of injury.
-Loss of reflexes.
-Loss of bowel, bladder and sexual function.
-Muscle spasm.
-Inability to control body temperature (high risk of hypo or hyperthermia).
-Loss of bone density.
-High risk of pressure injury.
✔✔Signs and symptoms of epilepsy - ✔✔- Changes in behaviour, movements or
feelings
- LOC
✔✔Definition of asthma - ✔✔Recurring inflammation of mucous membranes and
spasms/narrowing of the smooth muscles in the walls of the bronchial air passages.
✔✔Definition of COPD - ✔✔A group of lung diseases that block airflow and make it
difficult to breathe
✔✔Definition of pneumonia - ✔✔Acute inflammation of the lungs. Depending on the
cause, the alveoli and bronchi become swollen and plugged with mucous secretions.
✔✔Definition of TB - ✔✔A bacterial infection that most commonly affects the lungs, but
can also affect the lymph nodes, bones, joints and kidneys
✔✔Definition of influenza - ✔✔Acute inflammation of the nasopharynx, trachea and
bronchioles with congestion, oedema and the possibility of necrosis of respiratory
structures
✔✔Definition of PE - ✔✔Blockage of the pulmonary circulation by a thrombus or other
matter
✔✔Definition of IHD - ✔✔Heart problems caused by narrowed heart arteries. When
arteries are narrowed, less blood and oxygen reaches the heart muscle.
✔✔Definition of atherosclerosis - ✔✔The build-up of fats, cholesterol and other
substances in and on the artery walls.
✔✔Definition of angina - ✔✔Chest pain that occurs when the blood supply to the
muscles of your heart are restricted
,✔✔Definition of MI - ✔✔When blood flow to a section of the myocardium becomes
blocked.
✔✔Definition of HF - ✔✔The heart's inability to consistently pump enough blood to
organs and tissues.
✔✔Definition of CKF - ✔✔Progressive irreversible loss of kidney function and
decreased GFR for at least three months.
✔✔Definition of AKI - ✔✔Rapid loss of renal function due to kidney damage
✔✔Definition of ischaemic stroke - ✔✔A blood vessel supplying the brain becomes
blocked
✔✔Definition of haemorrhagic stroke - ✔✔A blood vessel bursts leaking blood into the
brain.
✔✔Definition of TIA - ✔✔A temporary focal loss of neurological function caused by
ischaemia
✔✔Definition of Parkinson's - ✔✔Degenerative disorder of the basal nuclei involving
failure of the neurons that secrete dopamine.
✔✔Definition of meningitis - ✔✔Infection of the meninges, including the pia mater,
arachnoid, subarachnoid space, ventricular system and CSF.
✔✔Definition of epilepsy - ✔✔Characterised by a sudden, uncontrolled electrical
disturbance in the brain
✔✔Definition of TBI - ✔✔A nondegenerative, noncongenital insult to the brain from an
external mechanical force, possibly leading to permanent or temporary impairment of
cognitive, physical, and psychosocial functions, with an associated diminished or altered
state of consciousness.
✔✔Definition of SCI - ✔✔Mechanical disruption to the structure and function of the
spinal cord and spinal nerve pathways caused by a traumatic or non-traumatic injury.
✔✔Pathophysiology of asthma - ✔✔1. Allergen (trigger) such as pollen, exercise,
smoke, dust enters respiratory tract
2. Dendritic cells in epithelial layer engulf pathogen, stimulating immune response
3. Mast cells in bronchial smooth muscle activated and chemical mediators released
,4. Eosinophils stimulated in bone marrow and attracted to local area
5. Vasodilation causes fluid to leak from vasculature into tissues = oedema
6. Airway hyper responsiveness causes bronchospasm
7. Increase mucous from goblet cells further obstructs air entry
8. Gas trapping from bronchoconstriction results in hypercapnia
✔✔Pathophysiology of COPD - ✔✔1. An irritant causes an abnormal inflammatory
response
2. Epithelium becomes chronically inflamed - cilia are destroyed and the ability to
remove mucus is impaired.
3. When activated by chronic inflammation, proteinases and other substances may be
released, damaging the parenchyma of the lung
4. Cytokines (neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes) are released
5. Ongoing bronchial irritation and inflammation
Leaky capillaries - protein rich fluid seeps into alveoli
6. Mucous gland hypertrophy - Mucous production increased - Viscosity of mucus
increases
7. The attachments that support the walls of the small airways apply radial traction.
When radial traction is reduced, small airways collapse causing air trapping and
increased work of breathing
8. Smooth muscle becomes thickened and contracted resulting in bronchconstriction
9. Protease/antiprotease imbalance and decreased elasticity of airways
10. Destruction of alveoli
11. Smaller alveolar sacs merge to become larger inelastic ones, this results in reduced
surface area of the alveolar membrane causing impaired gas exchange.
12. Alveoli become solid due to fluid = consolidation
13. Expiration is difficult due to loss of elastic recoil - impaired gas exchange ↓O2 ↑CO2
Ventilation perfusion imbalance
, ✔✔Pathophysiology of pneumonia - ✔✔1. Bacteria invades spaces between cells &
alveoli
2. Inflammatory response + alveolar macrophages try to control inflection
3. Fluid & mucus buildup in lungs
4. Impaired gas exchange & circulation
5. Ventilation exceeds pulmonary perfusion (V/Q mismatch)
✔✔Pathophysiology of TB - ✔✔1) Mycobacteria inhaled, transmitted to alveoli
2) Mycobacteria also enter lymph system travelling to kidney, bones and cerebral cortex
Inflammatory response stimulated
3) Phagocytes (neutrophils/macrophages) engulf bacteria
4) TB specific lymphocytes destroy bacteria and normal tissue
5) Exudate accumulates in alveoli causing bronchopneumonia
6) Live & dead bacilli form granulomas and form fibrous tissue mass (ghontubercle)
7) Ghontubercle becomes necrotic forming cheesy mass - calcifies or forms scar =
disease dormant
8) If cheesy mass released into alveoli, bacteria becomes airborne on expiration and
spreads
✔✔Pathophysiology of influenza - ✔✔1. Virus enters the respiratory tract attaching to
epithelial cells.
2. Enters host cell and uses host DNA to replicate disease.
3. New viral spores are released from host cell.
4. Destruction/desquamation of trachea and bronchi means on basal layer of epithelium
remains.
5. Damage to epithelial cell wall causes oedema and possibly haemorrhage of
submucosa, leading to cell death.
6. Necrotic cells may undergo phagocytosis by macrophages, recruiting neutrophils.
7. Results in alveolar wall oedema causing ineffective gas exchange.
