CR Step 2: Citric Acid Cycle
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-Prep Step: Pyruvate is oxidized and releases CO2, creating 2 NADH
(reduced NAD+) and Acetyl CoA which is needed in CA cycle. Occurs twice
since there are 2 pyruvates.
-The Cycle: an eight-step process that breaks down Acetyl CoA to CO2. To
produce ATP, GDP takes up a Pi group and ADP then receives it causing
substrate-level phosphorylation.
Products: 2 CO2, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 (2x for one glucose molecule!)
, Outcome: NADH and FADH2 electron carriers are brought e- transport
chain and 6 CO2 (including prep step) and 2 ATP are created.
Where is chloroplast found
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found in leaf cells called mesophyll which produces chlorophyll, which is
the green color in leaves and resides in thylakoids.
Point mutation
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Single nucleotide-pair substitution
- Silent: Codon change has no effect on the amino acid sequence because
of redundancy in the genetic code.
- Missense: Codon change results in different amino acid being placed.
- Nonsense: Codon change results in a stop codon.
Chromosome
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, Cell structure consisting of one DNA molecule and its associated protein
molecules
-Prokaryotes: one circular chromosome, located in cytoplasm. Packed in
loops
-Eukaryotes: multiple linear chromosomes, located in the nucleus. Packed
in chromatin, made of protein and chromosomes.
Fermentation by yeasts
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Pyruvic acid + NADH --> Ethyl alcohol + CO2 + NAD+
Sites of Ribosomal Complex
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A site: tRNA that carries next amino acid
P site: carries growing polypeptide chain
E site: where empty tRNAs exit the ribosome
Pyrimidines
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Cytosine and Thymine
, Reducing Agent
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electron donor
Rubisco
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Most abundant protein on earth. Used in Calvin Cycle.
-Can take up O2 as the acceptor and perform photorespiration when CO2
levels are low. Very wasteful process since it uses a lot of ATP.
Parts of a Chromosome
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2 chromatids held together by a centromere
Post-tranlational processing
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-Addition of sugars
-Addition of lipids
-Removal of methionine from amino end
-Cleavage of the polypeptide into several pieces
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-Prep Step: Pyruvate is oxidized and releases CO2, creating 2 NADH
(reduced NAD+) and Acetyl CoA which is needed in CA cycle. Occurs twice
since there are 2 pyruvates.
-The Cycle: an eight-step process that breaks down Acetyl CoA to CO2. To
produce ATP, GDP takes up a Pi group and ADP then receives it causing
substrate-level phosphorylation.
Products: 2 CO2, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2 (2x for one glucose molecule!)
, Outcome: NADH and FADH2 electron carriers are brought e- transport
chain and 6 CO2 (including prep step) and 2 ATP are created.
Where is chloroplast found
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found in leaf cells called mesophyll which produces chlorophyll, which is
the green color in leaves and resides in thylakoids.
Point mutation
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Single nucleotide-pair substitution
- Silent: Codon change has no effect on the amino acid sequence because
of redundancy in the genetic code.
- Missense: Codon change results in different amino acid being placed.
- Nonsense: Codon change results in a stop codon.
Chromosome
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, Cell structure consisting of one DNA molecule and its associated protein
molecules
-Prokaryotes: one circular chromosome, located in cytoplasm. Packed in
loops
-Eukaryotes: multiple linear chromosomes, located in the nucleus. Packed
in chromatin, made of protein and chromosomes.
Fermentation by yeasts
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Pyruvic acid + NADH --> Ethyl alcohol + CO2 + NAD+
Sites of Ribosomal Complex
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A site: tRNA that carries next amino acid
P site: carries growing polypeptide chain
E site: where empty tRNAs exit the ribosome
Pyrimidines
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Cytosine and Thymine
, Reducing Agent
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electron donor
Rubisco
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Most abundant protein on earth. Used in Calvin Cycle.
-Can take up O2 as the acceptor and perform photorespiration when CO2
levels are low. Very wasteful process since it uses a lot of ATP.
Parts of a Chromosome
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2 chromatids held together by a centromere
Post-tranlational processing
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-Addition of sugars
-Addition of lipids
-Removal of methionine from amino end
-Cleavage of the polypeptide into several pieces
