NR507 Final EXAM QUESTIONS AND VERIFIED
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hormonal regulation of calcium - ✔✔Calcium homeostasis in the extracellular fluid is tightly
controlled and defended physiologically. Hypercalcemia always represents considerable underlying
pathology and occurs when the hormonal control of calcium homeostasis is overwhelmed. The major
hormones that are responsible for normal calcium homeostasis are parathyroid hormone and 1,25-
dihydroxyvitamin D; these hormones control extracellular fluid calcium on a chronic basis. Over- or
underproduction of these hormones or the tumor peptide, parathyroid hormone-related peptide, are
the major causes of aberrant extracellular fluid calcium concentrations. These hormonal defense
mechanisms are reviewed here.
Huntington Disease - ✔✔Huntington disease (HD) is a disorder in which nerve cells in certain parts of
the brain waste away, or degenerate. The disease is passed down through families.
Hypersensitivity reaction - ✔✔Hypersensitivity reaction is.the undesirable reactions produced by the
normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity. It is often divided into four groups.
Hypersensitivity reaction type I - immediate hypersensitivity reactions - ✔✔Involve immunoglobulin
E - mediated release of histamine and other mediators from mass cells and basophils. Examples
include anaphylaxis and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis
Hypersensitivity reaction type IV - delayed hypersensitivity reactions, cell-mediated immunity -
✔✔Mediated by T cells rather than antibodies. An example is contact dermatitis from poison ivy or
nickel allergy
Hypersensitivity reactions type II - cytotoxic hypersensitivity reactions - ✔✔Involves immunoglobulin
G or immunoglobulin M antibodies down to cell surface antigens with subsequent complement
fixation. An example is drug-induced hemolytic anemia
Hypersensitivity reactiontype III - immune complex reactions - ✔✔Involve circulating antigen
antibody immune complexes that deposit and post capillary venules, with subsequent complement
fixation. An example is serum sickness
Hypo chromic, microcytic anemia (low MCHC, below MCV) - ✔✔Iron deficiency anemia
thalassemias
anemia of chronic diseases
hypochromic - ✔✔generic term for any type of anemia where the red blood cells or erythrocytes are
paler than normal. Hypo means less and chromic means color
IgG - ✔✔Immunoglobulin G is a type of antibody. Representing approximately 75% of serum
antibodies in the human IgG is the most common type of antibody found in circulation. IgG molecules
are created and released by plasma B cells. IgG is the first antibody to be made by the body to fight
and new infection. It is found mainly in the blood and lymph fluid.
iGGA antibodies - ✔✔Immunoglobulin a is an antibody the plays a crucial role in the immune
function of mucous membranes. The amount of IGA produced in association with mucosal
membranes is greater than all other types of antibodies combined
Inflammatory response - ✔✔Innate immunity includes two lines of defense: natural barriers and
inflammation (Table 7-1). Natural barriers are physical, mechanical, and biochemical barriers at the
body's surfaces and are in place at birth to prevent damage by substances in the environment and
thwart infection by pathogenic microorganisms. If the surface barriers are breached, the second line
,of defense, the inflammatory response, is activated to protect the body from further injury, prevent
infection of the injured tissue, and promote healing. The inflammatory response is a rapid activation
of biochemical and cellular processes that is relatively nonspecific, with similar responses being
initiated against a wide variety of causes of tissue damage.
Inflammatory response upon injury - ✔✔Is activated to protect the body from further injury, prevent
infection of the injured tissue, and promote healing. Inflammatory response is a rapid activation of
biochemical and cellular processes that is relatively nonspecific with similar responses being initiated
against a wide variety of causes of tissue damage.
Innate immunity - ✔✔The natural epithelial barrier that offers resistance. In outer layer specialized
epithelium, including the skin and mucosal services, is relatively resistant to most environmental
hazards and resistant infection with disease causing microorganisms. If the barrier is damaged a
highly efficient local and systemic response (inflammation) is mobilized to limit the extent of the
damage, protect against infection, and initiate repair of the damaged tissue
kidney stones - ✔✔Stone growth starts with the formation of crystals in supersaturated urine which
then adhere to the urothelium, thus creating the nidus for subsequent stone growth. The biological
processes that anchor crystals to the urothelium are incompletely understood. Many, but not all,
calcium oxalate stones develop on Randall's plaques which are composed of calcium phosphate (=
hydroxyapatite) crystals. These grow to erode the urothelium, forming a nucleus for calcium oxalate
deposition.
More recent theories focus on the role of cell surface molecules which favour or inhibit crystal
adhesion.4,5 Urothelial injury and repair after a stone episode may increase surface expression of
these molecules to favour further crystal adhesion.6 Thus 'stones beget stones'7 because there may
be a residual nucleus on which further stones may form and/or upregulation of molecules favouring
crystal adhesion. Stone prevention focuses on identifying and ameliorating the risk factors for crystal
formation.
lactose intolerance - ✔✔Millions of Americans can't digest a certain sugar in milk and milk products
called lactose. If you're one of them, you have lactose intolerance.
The condition isn't harmful, but it can be uncomfortable and may be embarrassing. There's no cure,
but you can manage it by watching how much milk or milk products you drink or eat.
Being lactose intolerant is not the same as being allergic to milk
Large bowel obstruction - ✔✔An emergency condition that requires early identification and
intervention. There is when there is a blockage in the Lord felt that prevents food and gas from
passing through. The blockage cuts off blood supply to the bowel and a part of it dies. This happens
the pressure causes a leak that spreads bacteria into the body or blood.
Lupus - ✔✔A systemic autoimmune disease that occurs when your body's immune system at your
own tissue and organs. Information caused by lupus can affect many different body systems -
including your joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, brain, heart, and lungs.
Lupus can be difficult to diagnose because signs and symptoms often mimic those of other ailments.
Most distinctive sign of lupus - a facial rash that resembles the wings of a butterfly and folding across
both cheeks occurs in many but not all cases of lupus.
Lupus symptoms - ✔✔Most common:
fatigue
fever
joint pain, stiffness and swelling
butterfly shape to rash on the face that covers the cheeks and bridge of nose or rashes elsewhere to
the body
skin lesions that appear or worsen with sun exposure
, fingers and toes to turn white or blue when exposed to cold or during stressful periods (Raynauds
phenomenon)
shortness of breath
chest pain
dry ice
headaches, confusion, and memory loss
Macrocytic - ✔✔The macrocytic is from the Greek words meaning large cell. A macrocytic class of
anemia is in anemia in which the red blood cells are larger than their normal volume
macule - ✔✔Flat, distinct, discolored area of scan less than 1 cm wide. It doesn't involve any change
in the thickness or texture of the skin. Areas of discoloration that are larger than 1 cm are referred to
as patches. Commonly appear ontheback,chest,arms or face. A birthmark may be considered
immaculate that small. May be caused by vitiligo or ultraviolet light exposure. Often called age spots
Male sex hormone production - ✔✔Androgens are steroid hormones that control the expression and
maintenance of male sexual characteristics
•Adrenal androgens DHEA and androstenedione are produced in the zona reticulata and zona
fasciculata of the adrenal cortex.
•Testosterone is produced Leydig cells, which are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules of the
testes ◦In Leydig cells, LH initiates the production of pregnenolone
◦Pregnenolone is then converted to DHEA in a two-step process mediated by 17,20-lyase (17α-
hydroxylase)
◦Because Leydig cells express high levels of 3β-HSD and 17β-HSD, DHEA is rapidly converted to
testosterone via the intermediates androstenediol and androstenedione
•Testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the action of 5α-reductase in target
tissues; although it is about one-tenth as abundant as testosterone, it accounts for most of
testosterone's biological action
Maternal immune system immune system - ✔✔The pregnant female is exposed to a variety of
potentially immunogenic foreign antigens on her allergenic intrauterine concept us. The extent to
which maternal antibodies and cell-mediated immune responses to these antigens are relevant to the
paradoxical survival of the fetal polygraph is not clearly established. The trophoblast prevent
significant entry of maternal lymphocytes to the fetus and is most likely to protect it from maternal
immune rejection by features of its cell surface molecular structure and or its synthesis of factors that
render it and susceptible to antibody - or cell-mediated immune lysis in vivo.
Melanoma - ✔✔Also known as malignant melanoma. Occurs when the pigment producing cells that
give color to the skin become cancerous. Symptoms may be a new, unusual growth or a change in an
existing mall. Melanomas can occur anywhere on the body. Treatment may involve surgery, radiation,
medications, or in some cases chemotherapy.
Microcytic - ✔✔Kind as the presence of small, and often hypochromic the red blood cells in the
blood smear and is usually characterized by low MCV. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of
microcytic anemia
Nephrotic syndrome - ✔✔Nephrotic syndrome is a group of symptoms that include protein in the
urine, low blood protein levels in the blood, high cholesterol levels, high triglyceride levels, increased
blood clot risk, and swelling.
Causes
ACCURATE SOLUTION |GET IT 100%
ACCURATE!!!
hormonal regulation of calcium - ✔✔Calcium homeostasis in the extracellular fluid is tightly
controlled and defended physiologically. Hypercalcemia always represents considerable underlying
pathology and occurs when the hormonal control of calcium homeostasis is overwhelmed. The major
hormones that are responsible for normal calcium homeostasis are parathyroid hormone and 1,25-
dihydroxyvitamin D; these hormones control extracellular fluid calcium on a chronic basis. Over- or
underproduction of these hormones or the tumor peptide, parathyroid hormone-related peptide, are
the major causes of aberrant extracellular fluid calcium concentrations. These hormonal defense
mechanisms are reviewed here.
Huntington Disease - ✔✔Huntington disease (HD) is a disorder in which nerve cells in certain parts of
the brain waste away, or degenerate. The disease is passed down through families.
Hypersensitivity reaction - ✔✔Hypersensitivity reaction is.the undesirable reactions produced by the
normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity. It is often divided into four groups.
Hypersensitivity reaction type I - immediate hypersensitivity reactions - ✔✔Involve immunoglobulin
E - mediated release of histamine and other mediators from mass cells and basophils. Examples
include anaphylaxis and allergic rhinoconjunctivitis
Hypersensitivity reaction type IV - delayed hypersensitivity reactions, cell-mediated immunity -
✔✔Mediated by T cells rather than antibodies. An example is contact dermatitis from poison ivy or
nickel allergy
Hypersensitivity reactions type II - cytotoxic hypersensitivity reactions - ✔✔Involves immunoglobulin
G or immunoglobulin M antibodies down to cell surface antigens with subsequent complement
fixation. An example is drug-induced hemolytic anemia
Hypersensitivity reactiontype III - immune complex reactions - ✔✔Involve circulating antigen
antibody immune complexes that deposit and post capillary venules, with subsequent complement
fixation. An example is serum sickness
Hypo chromic, microcytic anemia (low MCHC, below MCV) - ✔✔Iron deficiency anemia
thalassemias
anemia of chronic diseases
hypochromic - ✔✔generic term for any type of anemia where the red blood cells or erythrocytes are
paler than normal. Hypo means less and chromic means color
IgG - ✔✔Immunoglobulin G is a type of antibody. Representing approximately 75% of serum
antibodies in the human IgG is the most common type of antibody found in circulation. IgG molecules
are created and released by plasma B cells. IgG is the first antibody to be made by the body to fight
and new infection. It is found mainly in the blood and lymph fluid.
iGGA antibodies - ✔✔Immunoglobulin a is an antibody the plays a crucial role in the immune
function of mucous membranes. The amount of IGA produced in association with mucosal
membranes is greater than all other types of antibodies combined
Inflammatory response - ✔✔Innate immunity includes two lines of defense: natural barriers and
inflammation (Table 7-1). Natural barriers are physical, mechanical, and biochemical barriers at the
body's surfaces and are in place at birth to prevent damage by substances in the environment and
thwart infection by pathogenic microorganisms. If the surface barriers are breached, the second line
,of defense, the inflammatory response, is activated to protect the body from further injury, prevent
infection of the injured tissue, and promote healing. The inflammatory response is a rapid activation
of biochemical and cellular processes that is relatively nonspecific, with similar responses being
initiated against a wide variety of causes of tissue damage.
Inflammatory response upon injury - ✔✔Is activated to protect the body from further injury, prevent
infection of the injured tissue, and promote healing. Inflammatory response is a rapid activation of
biochemical and cellular processes that is relatively nonspecific with similar responses being initiated
against a wide variety of causes of tissue damage.
Innate immunity - ✔✔The natural epithelial barrier that offers resistance. In outer layer specialized
epithelium, including the skin and mucosal services, is relatively resistant to most environmental
hazards and resistant infection with disease causing microorganisms. If the barrier is damaged a
highly efficient local and systemic response (inflammation) is mobilized to limit the extent of the
damage, protect against infection, and initiate repair of the damaged tissue
kidney stones - ✔✔Stone growth starts with the formation of crystals in supersaturated urine which
then adhere to the urothelium, thus creating the nidus for subsequent stone growth. The biological
processes that anchor crystals to the urothelium are incompletely understood. Many, but not all,
calcium oxalate stones develop on Randall's plaques which are composed of calcium phosphate (=
hydroxyapatite) crystals. These grow to erode the urothelium, forming a nucleus for calcium oxalate
deposition.
More recent theories focus on the role of cell surface molecules which favour or inhibit crystal
adhesion.4,5 Urothelial injury and repair after a stone episode may increase surface expression of
these molecules to favour further crystal adhesion.6 Thus 'stones beget stones'7 because there may
be a residual nucleus on which further stones may form and/or upregulation of molecules favouring
crystal adhesion. Stone prevention focuses on identifying and ameliorating the risk factors for crystal
formation.
lactose intolerance - ✔✔Millions of Americans can't digest a certain sugar in milk and milk products
called lactose. If you're one of them, you have lactose intolerance.
The condition isn't harmful, but it can be uncomfortable and may be embarrassing. There's no cure,
but you can manage it by watching how much milk or milk products you drink or eat.
Being lactose intolerant is not the same as being allergic to milk
Large bowel obstruction - ✔✔An emergency condition that requires early identification and
intervention. There is when there is a blockage in the Lord felt that prevents food and gas from
passing through. The blockage cuts off blood supply to the bowel and a part of it dies. This happens
the pressure causes a leak that spreads bacteria into the body or blood.
Lupus - ✔✔A systemic autoimmune disease that occurs when your body's immune system at your
own tissue and organs. Information caused by lupus can affect many different body systems -
including your joints, skin, kidneys, blood cells, brain, heart, and lungs.
Lupus can be difficult to diagnose because signs and symptoms often mimic those of other ailments.
Most distinctive sign of lupus - a facial rash that resembles the wings of a butterfly and folding across
both cheeks occurs in many but not all cases of lupus.
Lupus symptoms - ✔✔Most common:
fatigue
fever
joint pain, stiffness and swelling
butterfly shape to rash on the face that covers the cheeks and bridge of nose or rashes elsewhere to
the body
skin lesions that appear or worsen with sun exposure
, fingers and toes to turn white or blue when exposed to cold or during stressful periods (Raynauds
phenomenon)
shortness of breath
chest pain
dry ice
headaches, confusion, and memory loss
Macrocytic - ✔✔The macrocytic is from the Greek words meaning large cell. A macrocytic class of
anemia is in anemia in which the red blood cells are larger than their normal volume
macule - ✔✔Flat, distinct, discolored area of scan less than 1 cm wide. It doesn't involve any change
in the thickness or texture of the skin. Areas of discoloration that are larger than 1 cm are referred to
as patches. Commonly appear ontheback,chest,arms or face. A birthmark may be considered
immaculate that small. May be caused by vitiligo or ultraviolet light exposure. Often called age spots
Male sex hormone production - ✔✔Androgens are steroid hormones that control the expression and
maintenance of male sexual characteristics
•Adrenal androgens DHEA and androstenedione are produced in the zona reticulata and zona
fasciculata of the adrenal cortex.
•Testosterone is produced Leydig cells, which are found adjacent to the seminiferous tubules of the
testes ◦In Leydig cells, LH initiates the production of pregnenolone
◦Pregnenolone is then converted to DHEA in a two-step process mediated by 17,20-lyase (17α-
hydroxylase)
◦Because Leydig cells express high levels of 3β-HSD and 17β-HSD, DHEA is rapidly converted to
testosterone via the intermediates androstenediol and androstenedione
•Testosterone is converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by the action of 5α-reductase in target
tissues; although it is about one-tenth as abundant as testosterone, it accounts for most of
testosterone's biological action
Maternal immune system immune system - ✔✔The pregnant female is exposed to a variety of
potentially immunogenic foreign antigens on her allergenic intrauterine concept us. The extent to
which maternal antibodies and cell-mediated immune responses to these antigens are relevant to the
paradoxical survival of the fetal polygraph is not clearly established. The trophoblast prevent
significant entry of maternal lymphocytes to the fetus and is most likely to protect it from maternal
immune rejection by features of its cell surface molecular structure and or its synthesis of factors that
render it and susceptible to antibody - or cell-mediated immune lysis in vivo.
Melanoma - ✔✔Also known as malignant melanoma. Occurs when the pigment producing cells that
give color to the skin become cancerous. Symptoms may be a new, unusual growth or a change in an
existing mall. Melanomas can occur anywhere on the body. Treatment may involve surgery, radiation,
medications, or in some cases chemotherapy.
Microcytic - ✔✔Kind as the presence of small, and often hypochromic the red blood cells in the
blood smear and is usually characterized by low MCV. Iron deficiency is the most common cause of
microcytic anemia
Nephrotic syndrome - ✔✔Nephrotic syndrome is a group of symptoms that include protein in the
urine, low blood protein levels in the blood, high cholesterol levels, high triglyceride levels, increased
blood clot risk, and swelling.
Causes
