,Table of Contents
Unit 1...............................................................................................................4
Empirical Research and Decision Making......................................................4
Unit 2...............................................................................................................7
Research Questions and Their Characteristics..............................................7
Unit 3...............................................................................................................9
Units, Variables and Measurement...............................................................9
Unit 4.............................................................................................................11
R-unit 1.......................................................................................................11
Unit 5.............................................................................................................12
Constructs, Concepts and Measurement....................................................12
Unit 6.............................................................................................................15
From Concepts to Data...............................................................................15
Unit 7.............................................................................................................17
Content Analysis and Coding......................................................................17
Unit 8.............................................................................................................19
Reliability and Validity of Measurement Instruments..................................19
Unit 9.............................................................................................................21
R-unit 2.......................................................................................................21
Unit 26...........................................................................................................22
Research Designs, Obtrusiveness and Standardization..............................22
Unit 10...........................................................................................................24
Summarizing and Displaying Data..............................................................24
Unit 11...........................................................................................................25
R-unit 3.......................................................................................................25
Unit 12...........................................................................................................26
Causality and Explanatory Research...........................................................26
Unit 24...........................................................................................................28
R-unit 4.......................................................................................................28
Unit 13...........................................................................................................29
, R-unit 5.......................................................................................................29
Unit 15...........................................................................................................29
Research design for testing causal hypotheses..........................................29
Unit 14...........................................................................................................32
Causality and the effect of third variables..................................................32
Unit 16...........................................................................................................35
Elaboration: analysing mulit-variable relationships using tables................35
Unit 17...........................................................................................................38
The Elaboration Model in Practice: Testing Hypotheses and Understanding
Complex Relationships................................................................................38
Unit 18...........................................................................................................41
R-unit..........................................................................................................41
Unit 19...........................................................................................................41
Sampling: From Populations to Representative Samples............................41
Unit 23...........................................................................................................44
The Normal and Standard Normal Distribution...........................................44
Unit 20...........................................................................................................47
From Samples to Populations: Understanding Inference and Sampling
Distributions...............................................................................................47
Glossary.........................................................................................................50
, Unit 1
Empirical Research and Decision Making
Empirical research is systematically answering empirical questions and is
based on observation and experience rather than opinion or speculation.
Systematically means excluding the possibility that other answers asre
better than the answer we give.
It follows the structure of the wheel of science, also called the empirical
cycle, which describes the steps of scientific investigation. This cycle begins
with observation, where a researcher notices something in reality that needs
explanation. From there, the researcher uses induction, moving from specific
observations to form a general idea, model, or hypothesis. The next step is
deduction, where concrete, testable hypotheses are derived from the general
idea. These hypotheses are then put to the test through systematic data
collection and analysis. Finally, the outcomes are evaluated, and the theory
may be adjusted or improved, after which the cycle can start again.
Understanding the difference between induction and deduction is crucial in
this process. Induction means reasoning from particular cases toward a
Unit 1...............................................................................................................4
Empirical Research and Decision Making......................................................4
Unit 2...............................................................................................................7
Research Questions and Their Characteristics..............................................7
Unit 3...............................................................................................................9
Units, Variables and Measurement...............................................................9
Unit 4.............................................................................................................11
R-unit 1.......................................................................................................11
Unit 5.............................................................................................................12
Constructs, Concepts and Measurement....................................................12
Unit 6.............................................................................................................15
From Concepts to Data...............................................................................15
Unit 7.............................................................................................................17
Content Analysis and Coding......................................................................17
Unit 8.............................................................................................................19
Reliability and Validity of Measurement Instruments..................................19
Unit 9.............................................................................................................21
R-unit 2.......................................................................................................21
Unit 26...........................................................................................................22
Research Designs, Obtrusiveness and Standardization..............................22
Unit 10...........................................................................................................24
Summarizing and Displaying Data..............................................................24
Unit 11...........................................................................................................25
R-unit 3.......................................................................................................25
Unit 12...........................................................................................................26
Causality and Explanatory Research...........................................................26
Unit 24...........................................................................................................28
R-unit 4.......................................................................................................28
Unit 13...........................................................................................................29
, R-unit 5.......................................................................................................29
Unit 15...........................................................................................................29
Research design for testing causal hypotheses..........................................29
Unit 14...........................................................................................................32
Causality and the effect of third variables..................................................32
Unit 16...........................................................................................................35
Elaboration: analysing mulit-variable relationships using tables................35
Unit 17...........................................................................................................38
The Elaboration Model in Practice: Testing Hypotheses and Understanding
Complex Relationships................................................................................38
Unit 18...........................................................................................................41
R-unit..........................................................................................................41
Unit 19...........................................................................................................41
Sampling: From Populations to Representative Samples............................41
Unit 23...........................................................................................................44
The Normal and Standard Normal Distribution...........................................44
Unit 20...........................................................................................................47
From Samples to Populations: Understanding Inference and Sampling
Distributions...............................................................................................47
Glossary.........................................................................................................50
, Unit 1
Empirical Research and Decision Making
Empirical research is systematically answering empirical questions and is
based on observation and experience rather than opinion or speculation.
Systematically means excluding the possibility that other answers asre
better than the answer we give.
It follows the structure of the wheel of science, also called the empirical
cycle, which describes the steps of scientific investigation. This cycle begins
with observation, where a researcher notices something in reality that needs
explanation. From there, the researcher uses induction, moving from specific
observations to form a general idea, model, or hypothesis. The next step is
deduction, where concrete, testable hypotheses are derived from the general
idea. These hypotheses are then put to the test through systematic data
collection and analysis. Finally, the outcomes are evaluated, and the theory
may be adjusted or improved, after which the cycle can start again.
Understanding the difference between induction and deduction is crucial in
this process. Induction means reasoning from particular cases toward a
