AMERICA NOTES REVISION DOC
1. American colonies by 1763
America in 1760
13 colonies:
- In 1760 the term ‘America’ referred to a continent - not to a country.
- Most of the North American continent was uninhabited by western settlers.
- There were 13 British colonies grouped into the New England colonies, the middle
colonies and the southern colonies.
A growing population: Between 1700 and 1763 the population of the thirteen colonies
increased eightfold from 250,000 to reach 2 million.
A rural society: Just 3.5% lived in towns.
A diverse society: Most of the 17th century settlers had been English, but most 18th century
settlers came from protestant Europe, many as indentured servants. By 1760 only half of the
population was from English stock. Slaves made up ⅙ of the population, with most living in
the south.
Native Americans: Relations between the white Europeans and Native Americans were poor,
and conflict was common.
How were the colonies governed?
Governors: Each colony had a governor, who was appointed, and could only be removed by,
the king (apart from in Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware, where the proprietor of the
colony appointed the governor, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island, where governors were
elected). The power of the governors was limited by the British government, and by the colonial
legislatures who they depended for revenue and their salary.
Colonial legislatures: The upper house tended to be appointed by the governor, dominated by
the colonial elite, and could veto the lower house. Lower houses were elected and wielded
considerable power - because they were elected they held greater legitimacy, and they
controlled taxation and spending. The legislatures tended to meet once or twice a year to make
laws and deal with money matters. At least 50% (and some colonies up to 80%) of white adult
males could vote, due to high levels of land ownership. However, high property qualifications
ensured that most office-holders were drawn from the elite.
,British rule: The colonies were legally tied to Britain by their charters. The king and privy
council could review colonial laws, but vetoed them sparingly (just 5% of the time). The Board
of Trade, Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Treasury, War Office and Admiralty
were all involved in imperial administration. Most colonies employed agents in London to
communicate their concerns.
Salutary neglect: Policy of leaving the colonies to govern themselves.. As far as Britain was
concerned, Parliament was still the ultimate authority in the colonies, but salutary neglect
meant that, by 1760, many colonists no longer recognised this.
What were the key features of the colonial economy?
Rapid growth: Driven by intercolonial trade, trade with Britain and the empire, capital and
credit from Britain. A growing population, availability of land, and the emergence of new
industries such as iron production, textiles and shipbuilding. However, farming remained the
dominant economic activity, employing 90% of Americans.
New England: New England remained a land of small subsistence farms. The sea provided a
profitable alternative. New England fishermen brought back great quantities of cod, to be dried
and exported. More than half of New England’s export trade was with the West Indies, which
supplied the colonies with sugar, molasses and other tropical products. New England distilleries
turned molasses into rum.
Middle colonies: The Middle Colonies were a major source of wheat and flour products for
export to other colonies, the West Indies and Europe.
Southern colonies: Tobacco was the main product of the southern economy. Tobacco exports
rose from £14 million in the 1670s to £100 million in the 1770s. Rice, indigo and grain were
also produced for export.
Mercantilism: The belief that colonies existed essentially to serve the interests of the mother
country. The colonies existed to supply the mother country with raw materials, buy its
manufactured goods and provide employment for its shipping.
Between 1651 and 1673 the Trade and Navigation Acts were designed to establish an English
monopoly of the colonial shipping trade, the colonial market and certain colonial products:
- All cargoes to or from the colonies were to be carried in ships built and owned in
England and manned by English crews.
- Enumerated commodities such as sugar, cotton, indigo, dyewoods, ginger and tobacco
could only be exported from the colonies to England, even if they were ultimately
destined for elsewhere.
Laws were also passed to restrict colonial manufacturing:
, - the Woollen Act 1699 forbade the export of woollen yarn and cloth outside the colony
in which it was produced
- the Hat Act 1732 prohibited the export of colonial beaver hats
- the Iron Act 1750 banned the export of colonial iron outside the Empire (these laws
affected comparatively small industries).
However, mercantilism was not strictly enforced: smuggling was rife, and customs officials
were routinely bribed.
What were the key features of colonial society and culture?
THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY
The colonial elite were the great landowners, planter and wealthy merchants. They were
extremely wealthy, although lacked the titles and nobility of the British aristocracy.
Below the elite were the professionals - ministers, lawyers, doctors and schoolmasters.
80% of free males were landowning farmers. Shopkeepers and craftsmen in the towns enjoyed
similar social status to the farmers. As the majority of free males fell into this group, colonial
society can be described as a middling society.
Below them were the workers - tenant farmers and, in the towns, apprentices, sailors, servants
and labourers. Around 20% of free males were in this group.
At the bottom of society were slaves. Most lived and worked on plantations, while others were
used as domestic servants.
CULTURE
Education: Education was strongly encouraged, and 75% of white males were literate. There
were nine colleges. More than 30 newspapers were in circulation. The colonial elite were
influenced by the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason and progress.
Religion: Society was deeply religious, and dominated by a plethora of protestant
denominations, revealing a high degree of religious tolerance. However, most colonists were
strongly anti-Catholic, and there was church establishment in 9 colonies.
The Great Awakening: A wave of religious fervour swept the colonies in the early 18th century,
in what became known as the Great Awakening. Preachers emphasised the individual’s
personal relationship with God. Some have argued that by implication this challenged notions
of authority, and contributed to the American Revolution.
, What were the main events of the British-French struggle for control of
North America up to 1756?
The War of Austrian Succession, 1740-48: Britain was too absorbed fighting in Europe to send
much help to the colonists, but the Royal Navy ensured that French and Spanish colonists faced
the same problem.
The New England colonies, particularly Massachusetts, bore the brunt of the colonial war
effort, being closest to the centres of French population. Sailors were pressed into the Royal
Navy, young men served in militia, and the economy was damaged. Hundreds of militiamen
were killed.
The colonists’ greatest victory came in 1745 when they captured Louisbourg, but they were
appalled when the British handed Louisbourg back to the French in 1748, following the Treaty
of Aix-La-Chapelle.
Fort Duquesne, 1754: The French began to build a chain of forts along the forks of the Ohio
River, threatening the interests of the Ohio Company.
Washington led a Virginia militia to stop the French, meeting them at Fort Duquesne. Fighting
broke out when Washington’s force attempted to take the fort, but it was forced to retreat and
fell under siege. Washington surrendered. The British sent a force to Fort Duquesne, but
General Braddock and 2000 troops were destroyed in a French-Indian ambush. This marked
the beginning of the French-Indian war, fought from 1754-63 (this conflict would later merge
with the wider Seven Years’ War).
The Albany Congress, 1754: Colonies from Virginia northwards sent delegates to discuss
Native American policy. The Congress failed to secure an alliance with the Iroquois, but did
adopt Franklin’s Plan of Union, which proposed an Inter-colonial confederation. However, the
plan was rejected by the colonies.
What were the main events of the Seven Years’ War?
The Seven Years’ War: A major conflict between Britain, France and several other European
powers that saw fighting in Europe, the West Indies, Africa, India and North America.
1756-1757: Early success for France, General Montcalm’s forces capturing several forts
(Oswego). Due to these setbacks the Earl of Loudon struggled to enlist the support of the
colonists.
1757 onward: The appointment of Pitt as Secretary of State proved to be a turning point. Pitt
was an inspirational war leader who decided that North America held the key to victory. Pitt
dispatched an army of 25,000 men to North America under the command of Amherst and
Wolfe, with funds to recruit a further 25,000 colonists.
1. American colonies by 1763
America in 1760
13 colonies:
- In 1760 the term ‘America’ referred to a continent - not to a country.
- Most of the North American continent was uninhabited by western settlers.
- There were 13 British colonies grouped into the New England colonies, the middle
colonies and the southern colonies.
A growing population: Between 1700 and 1763 the population of the thirteen colonies
increased eightfold from 250,000 to reach 2 million.
A rural society: Just 3.5% lived in towns.
A diverse society: Most of the 17th century settlers had been English, but most 18th century
settlers came from protestant Europe, many as indentured servants. By 1760 only half of the
population was from English stock. Slaves made up ⅙ of the population, with most living in
the south.
Native Americans: Relations between the white Europeans and Native Americans were poor,
and conflict was common.
How were the colonies governed?
Governors: Each colony had a governor, who was appointed, and could only be removed by,
the king (apart from in Maryland, Pennsylvania and Delaware, where the proprietor of the
colony appointed the governor, and in Connecticut and Rhode Island, where governors were
elected). The power of the governors was limited by the British government, and by the colonial
legislatures who they depended for revenue and their salary.
Colonial legislatures: The upper house tended to be appointed by the governor, dominated by
the colonial elite, and could veto the lower house. Lower houses were elected and wielded
considerable power - because they were elected they held greater legitimacy, and they
controlled taxation and spending. The legislatures tended to meet once or twice a year to make
laws and deal with money matters. At least 50% (and some colonies up to 80%) of white adult
males could vote, due to high levels of land ownership. However, high property qualifications
ensured that most office-holders were drawn from the elite.
,British rule: The colonies were legally tied to Britain by their charters. The king and privy
council could review colonial laws, but vetoed them sparingly (just 5% of the time). The Board
of Trade, Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Treasury, War Office and Admiralty
were all involved in imperial administration. Most colonies employed agents in London to
communicate their concerns.
Salutary neglect: Policy of leaving the colonies to govern themselves.. As far as Britain was
concerned, Parliament was still the ultimate authority in the colonies, but salutary neglect
meant that, by 1760, many colonists no longer recognised this.
What were the key features of the colonial economy?
Rapid growth: Driven by intercolonial trade, trade with Britain and the empire, capital and
credit from Britain. A growing population, availability of land, and the emergence of new
industries such as iron production, textiles and shipbuilding. However, farming remained the
dominant economic activity, employing 90% of Americans.
New England: New England remained a land of small subsistence farms. The sea provided a
profitable alternative. New England fishermen brought back great quantities of cod, to be dried
and exported. More than half of New England’s export trade was with the West Indies, which
supplied the colonies with sugar, molasses and other tropical products. New England distilleries
turned molasses into rum.
Middle colonies: The Middle Colonies were a major source of wheat and flour products for
export to other colonies, the West Indies and Europe.
Southern colonies: Tobacco was the main product of the southern economy. Tobacco exports
rose from £14 million in the 1670s to £100 million in the 1770s. Rice, indigo and grain were
also produced for export.
Mercantilism: The belief that colonies existed essentially to serve the interests of the mother
country. The colonies existed to supply the mother country with raw materials, buy its
manufactured goods and provide employment for its shipping.
Between 1651 and 1673 the Trade and Navigation Acts were designed to establish an English
monopoly of the colonial shipping trade, the colonial market and certain colonial products:
- All cargoes to or from the colonies were to be carried in ships built and owned in
England and manned by English crews.
- Enumerated commodities such as sugar, cotton, indigo, dyewoods, ginger and tobacco
could only be exported from the colonies to England, even if they were ultimately
destined for elsewhere.
Laws were also passed to restrict colonial manufacturing:
, - the Woollen Act 1699 forbade the export of woollen yarn and cloth outside the colony
in which it was produced
- the Hat Act 1732 prohibited the export of colonial beaver hats
- the Iron Act 1750 banned the export of colonial iron outside the Empire (these laws
affected comparatively small industries).
However, mercantilism was not strictly enforced: smuggling was rife, and customs officials
were routinely bribed.
What were the key features of colonial society and culture?
THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY
The colonial elite were the great landowners, planter and wealthy merchants. They were
extremely wealthy, although lacked the titles and nobility of the British aristocracy.
Below the elite were the professionals - ministers, lawyers, doctors and schoolmasters.
80% of free males were landowning farmers. Shopkeepers and craftsmen in the towns enjoyed
similar social status to the farmers. As the majority of free males fell into this group, colonial
society can be described as a middling society.
Below them were the workers - tenant farmers and, in the towns, apprentices, sailors, servants
and labourers. Around 20% of free males were in this group.
At the bottom of society were slaves. Most lived and worked on plantations, while others were
used as domestic servants.
CULTURE
Education: Education was strongly encouraged, and 75% of white males were literate. There
were nine colleges. More than 30 newspapers were in circulation. The colonial elite were
influenced by the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason and progress.
Religion: Society was deeply religious, and dominated by a plethora of protestant
denominations, revealing a high degree of religious tolerance. However, most colonists were
strongly anti-Catholic, and there was church establishment in 9 colonies.
The Great Awakening: A wave of religious fervour swept the colonies in the early 18th century,
in what became known as the Great Awakening. Preachers emphasised the individual’s
personal relationship with God. Some have argued that by implication this challenged notions
of authority, and contributed to the American Revolution.
, What were the main events of the British-French struggle for control of
North America up to 1756?
The War of Austrian Succession, 1740-48: Britain was too absorbed fighting in Europe to send
much help to the colonists, but the Royal Navy ensured that French and Spanish colonists faced
the same problem.
The New England colonies, particularly Massachusetts, bore the brunt of the colonial war
effort, being closest to the centres of French population. Sailors were pressed into the Royal
Navy, young men served in militia, and the economy was damaged. Hundreds of militiamen
were killed.
The colonists’ greatest victory came in 1745 when they captured Louisbourg, but they were
appalled when the British handed Louisbourg back to the French in 1748, following the Treaty
of Aix-La-Chapelle.
Fort Duquesne, 1754: The French began to build a chain of forts along the forks of the Ohio
River, threatening the interests of the Ohio Company.
Washington led a Virginia militia to stop the French, meeting them at Fort Duquesne. Fighting
broke out when Washington’s force attempted to take the fort, but it was forced to retreat and
fell under siege. Washington surrendered. The British sent a force to Fort Duquesne, but
General Braddock and 2000 troops were destroyed in a French-Indian ambush. This marked
the beginning of the French-Indian war, fought from 1754-63 (this conflict would later merge
with the wider Seven Years’ War).
The Albany Congress, 1754: Colonies from Virginia northwards sent delegates to discuss
Native American policy. The Congress failed to secure an alliance with the Iroquois, but did
adopt Franklin’s Plan of Union, which proposed an Inter-colonial confederation. However, the
plan was rejected by the colonies.
What were the main events of the Seven Years’ War?
The Seven Years’ War: A major conflict between Britain, France and several other European
powers that saw fighting in Europe, the West Indies, Africa, India and North America.
1756-1757: Early success for France, General Montcalm’s forces capturing several forts
(Oswego). Due to these setbacks the Earl of Loudon struggled to enlist the support of the
colonists.
1757 onward: The appointment of Pitt as Secretary of State proved to be a turning point. Pitt
was an inspirational war leader who decided that North America held the key to victory. Pitt
dispatched an army of 25,000 men to North America under the command of Amherst and
Wolfe, with funds to recruit a further 25,000 colonists.
