INTERPRETATIONS REVISION DOC
ALEXANDER II
How liberal was he?
Local government
Zemtsva were elected local councils in 1864:
- They were chosen through four electoral colleges: one each for nobles,
townspeople, the Church, and the serfs.
- The zemstva had powers to improve public services, develop industrial projects,
and give relief to the poor.
- In 1870 these powers were extended to towns, where town councils (dumas)
were set up.
- The electoral system was weighted so that nobles’ votes mattered most.
- Zemstvo were mostly made up of the educated, who used meetings as a forum
for government criticism and political debate.
Peasants had the right to vote for members of an electoral college. The electoral college
would then vote for nominees to the zemstvo. The nobles, townspeople, and the
Church would vote directly for nominees.
This system reduced the weight of peasants’ votes, meaning they had less influence
over the zemstva than the nobility.
Political
Formed Committee of Ministers in 1861
13 ministers connected to government departments with specific functions.
All answerable to the Tsar, couldn’t formulate policy, ofter conflicted when pursuing
policies.
,Judiciary
- A single system of courts was set up.
- However, volost courts (run by three elected judges and a chairman) dealt with
peasant cases.
- The accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty.
- The accused could hire a lawyer.
- Criminal cases were heard before a barrister and a jury of property-owning men.
- Judges were appointed by the Tsar, and had better training and pay.
- Local Justices of the Peace were elected every three years by the zemstva.
- JPs were politically independent.
- Courts were open to the public and proceedings were reported.
However:
- The lawyers of the intelligentsia used the courts as an opportunity to criticise
Alexander's regime.
- Juries sometimes acquitted the accused out of sympathy, leading to a decree
permitting political crimes to be tried by special procedures.
- Ecclesiastical (Church) and military courts were excluded from reforms.
- Reforms were restricted to the central provinces of Russia. They did not extend
to Siberia or the Urals.
Economic
Tax farming abolished
Credit facilities made available through establishment of banks
Govt guaranteed annual dividends were provided through foreign investors
Cotton industry and mining industry improved, slim improvements in agriculture
However, transport and labour mobility was limited, Russian currency was unstable
Education
Need for literacy and numeracy among peasants increased due to EoS who were now
trying to run their own smallholdings. Under Golovnin, the Russian Minister for
Education 1862-97:
- Responsibility for schools was transferred from the Orthodox Church to the
zemstva.
- Primary and secondary schooling was extended.
, - Schools were declared open to all, regardless of sex or class.
- Universities could govern themselves and appoint their own staff.
- Number of primary schools increased x3
- 2x more children were educated at primary level
- 2x more university students
These reforms increased the number of radical thinkers criticising the Russian state.
Conservatives believed this threatened political stability, and so the government
restricted access to education from 1866 to suppress this.
Censorship
Alexander II initially relaxed press censorship:
- Press comment on government policy was permitted.
- Restrictions on publishers were reduced.
- Foreign publications were permitted with government approval.
The resulting increase in press criticism led to harsher restrictions in the 1870s.
Religion
There was some attempt at reducing corruption (by investigating suspected priests) in
the Orthodox Church, and conditions for Jews and other ethnic minorities improved.
However, by the 1870s hopes for Church reform or better treatment of ethnic
minorities had ended.
Opposition
1863 Polish rebellion:
The January Uprising was a popular rebellion against Russian rule over Poland.
It had widespread support amongst artisans, urban workers, peasants, and the lower
gentry.
Alexander responded with political reforms to appease the peasants and brutally
crushed the rebellion’s leaders.
Key figures were executed or exiled to Siberia.
ALEXANDER II
How liberal was he?
Local government
Zemtsva were elected local councils in 1864:
- They were chosen through four electoral colleges: one each for nobles,
townspeople, the Church, and the serfs.
- The zemstva had powers to improve public services, develop industrial projects,
and give relief to the poor.
- In 1870 these powers were extended to towns, where town councils (dumas)
were set up.
- The electoral system was weighted so that nobles’ votes mattered most.
- Zemstvo were mostly made up of the educated, who used meetings as a forum
for government criticism and political debate.
Peasants had the right to vote for members of an electoral college. The electoral college
would then vote for nominees to the zemstvo. The nobles, townspeople, and the
Church would vote directly for nominees.
This system reduced the weight of peasants’ votes, meaning they had less influence
over the zemstva than the nobility.
Political
Formed Committee of Ministers in 1861
13 ministers connected to government departments with specific functions.
All answerable to the Tsar, couldn’t formulate policy, ofter conflicted when pursuing
policies.
,Judiciary
- A single system of courts was set up.
- However, volost courts (run by three elected judges and a chairman) dealt with
peasant cases.
- The accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty.
- The accused could hire a lawyer.
- Criminal cases were heard before a barrister and a jury of property-owning men.
- Judges were appointed by the Tsar, and had better training and pay.
- Local Justices of the Peace were elected every three years by the zemstva.
- JPs were politically independent.
- Courts were open to the public and proceedings were reported.
However:
- The lawyers of the intelligentsia used the courts as an opportunity to criticise
Alexander's regime.
- Juries sometimes acquitted the accused out of sympathy, leading to a decree
permitting political crimes to be tried by special procedures.
- Ecclesiastical (Church) and military courts were excluded from reforms.
- Reforms were restricted to the central provinces of Russia. They did not extend
to Siberia or the Urals.
Economic
Tax farming abolished
Credit facilities made available through establishment of banks
Govt guaranteed annual dividends were provided through foreign investors
Cotton industry and mining industry improved, slim improvements in agriculture
However, transport and labour mobility was limited, Russian currency was unstable
Education
Need for literacy and numeracy among peasants increased due to EoS who were now
trying to run their own smallholdings. Under Golovnin, the Russian Minister for
Education 1862-97:
- Responsibility for schools was transferred from the Orthodox Church to the
zemstva.
- Primary and secondary schooling was extended.
, - Schools were declared open to all, regardless of sex or class.
- Universities could govern themselves and appoint their own staff.
- Number of primary schools increased x3
- 2x more children were educated at primary level
- 2x more university students
These reforms increased the number of radical thinkers criticising the Russian state.
Conservatives believed this threatened political stability, and so the government
restricted access to education from 1866 to suppress this.
Censorship
Alexander II initially relaxed press censorship:
- Press comment on government policy was permitted.
- Restrictions on publishers were reduced.
- Foreign publications were permitted with government approval.
The resulting increase in press criticism led to harsher restrictions in the 1870s.
Religion
There was some attempt at reducing corruption (by investigating suspected priests) in
the Orthodox Church, and conditions for Jews and other ethnic minorities improved.
However, by the 1870s hopes for Church reform or better treatment of ethnic
minorities had ended.
Opposition
1863 Polish rebellion:
The January Uprising was a popular rebellion against Russian rule over Poland.
It had widespread support amongst artisans, urban workers, peasants, and the lower
gentry.
Alexander responded with political reforms to appease the peasants and brutally
crushed the rebellion’s leaders.
Key figures were executed or exiled to Siberia.
