Chapter 1: Psychology is a Way of Thinking
Learning objectives
1. Be able to describe what it means to reason empirically
2. Be able to appreciate how psychological research methods help you become both a better
producer of information and a better consumer of information
3. Be able to describe the 5 habits that describe the work of scientists
Psychologists are empiricists, which means they draw conclusions based on systematic observations.
In practice, psychologists are both producers and consumers of research, regardless of their job,
because even if you are producing research, you must first study the work of previous researchers.
Evidence-based treatments = therapies supported by research
Scientists
1. They present themselves as empiricists during their research
2. They test their theories through research and, in return, adjust their theories based on the
resulting data
3. They follow norms within a scientific community that prioritize objectivity and honesty:
o Universalism = scientific claims are evaluated based on their merits, independent of
the researcher’s reputation. The same pre-set criteria apply to all scientists and all
research results.
o Communality = scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings
belong to the community
Scientists submit their work to scientific journals, which are reviewed by
peers
o Disinterestedness = scientists aim to discover the truth, whatever it may be; they are
not driven by ideology, politics, or profit
o Organized skepticism = scientists investigate everything, including their own
theories, commonly accepted ideas, and old wisdom
4. They choose an empirical approach for both applied and fundamental research
o Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind, and researchers carry out
their work in a local, “real-world” context
o Fundamental research is done to broaden the general body of knowledge
5. They publish their work publicly: submitting their results for review and responding to the
work of other scientists
Empiricism = using the senses or instruments that assist the senses as a basis for conclusions
Quantitative methods = describing empirical observations in numbers (most popular)
Qualitative methods = creating detailed descriptions that are not simplified into numbers
o Qualitative researchers practice reflexivity = consciously reflecting on how their
background or privileges have shaped their questions, and how this affects their
interpretations
o This is useful when studying sensitive topics because it seeks and values multiple
perspectives
Theory-Data Cycle
Scientists collect data to test, change, or adjust their theories
Harry Harlow (1958)
Cupboard theory: A mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she is the source of food
o Baby is hungry → gets food from mother → baby experiences a pleasant feeling
(reduced hunger)
Contact comfort theory: A mother is valuable to a baby mammal because of the comfort of
her warm skin
By separating these two variables, Harlow found that the baby monkeys spent most of their
time with the mother that had a warm, soft coat and only went to the mother with food
when they were hungry.
, Theory = a set of statements described as simply as possible
Hypothesis / expectation = the specific outcome the researcher wants to observe in a study to see if
the theory is accurate
Designed to test a part of a theory
Preferably pre-registered: after designing the study but before collecting data, the researcher
documents what outcome they expect
Data = a collection of observations
The data from a study supports or is consistent with a theory, but it does not prove it.
Afterward, replication follows: the study is repeated to test whether the result of the
previous study is consistent.
Theories are based on the weight of the evidence.
A good theory must be falsifiable.
Science is self-correcting: it discovers its wrong theories and improves them.
Questions
1. Explain what the roles of producer of research and consumer of research have in common and
how they differ.
o Both a producer and a consumer of research study the work of other psychologists who have
conducted research.
o A producer of research is strictly focused on designing experiments and conducting studies,
while the consumer of research critically examines the work of producers and applies it
where needed.
o Both roles are empirical.
2. What types of jobs require producer-of-research skills? What types of jobs require consumer-of-
research skills?
o Producer of research: laboratory work, research scientists
o Consumer of research: therapist, social worker
3. What happens to a theory if the data does not support the theories hypothesis? What might a
scientist say or do if the data does not support the theory?
o The theory is then adjusted based on the data that has been collected.
The scientist must critically examine the data and results compared to the theory and hypothesis.
4. Why can theories not be proven in science?
o To prove something, everything related to the theory must be tested, which is essentially
impossible.
Even if everything related to the theory were tested, there is always the possibility of an
exception, a case that does not support the hypothesis.
Therefore, it cannot be proven.
5. Merton described four norms that people in the scientific community should follow. How many
can you name without looking back?
o Universalism
o Communality
o Disinterestedness
o Organized skepticism
6. Describe at least two problems journalists might create when they try to publish science.
o They might dramatize the outcome of a hypothesis to attract readers, even if it doesn’t (fully)
match the actual findings of the study.
o The results of findings can be exaggerated, leading to misinformation.
Learning objectives
1. Be able to describe what it means to reason empirically
2. Be able to appreciate how psychological research methods help you become both a better
producer of information and a better consumer of information
3. Be able to describe the 5 habits that describe the work of scientists
Psychologists are empiricists, which means they draw conclusions based on systematic observations.
In practice, psychologists are both producers and consumers of research, regardless of their job,
because even if you are producing research, you must first study the work of previous researchers.
Evidence-based treatments = therapies supported by research
Scientists
1. They present themselves as empiricists during their research
2. They test their theories through research and, in return, adjust their theories based on the
resulting data
3. They follow norms within a scientific community that prioritize objectivity and honesty:
o Universalism = scientific claims are evaluated based on their merits, independent of
the researcher’s reputation. The same pre-set criteria apply to all scientists and all
research results.
o Communality = scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings
belong to the community
Scientists submit their work to scientific journals, which are reviewed by
peers
o Disinterestedness = scientists aim to discover the truth, whatever it may be; they are
not driven by ideology, politics, or profit
o Organized skepticism = scientists investigate everything, including their own
theories, commonly accepted ideas, and old wisdom
4. They choose an empirical approach for both applied and fundamental research
o Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind, and researchers carry out
their work in a local, “real-world” context
o Fundamental research is done to broaden the general body of knowledge
5. They publish their work publicly: submitting their results for review and responding to the
work of other scientists
Empiricism = using the senses or instruments that assist the senses as a basis for conclusions
Quantitative methods = describing empirical observations in numbers (most popular)
Qualitative methods = creating detailed descriptions that are not simplified into numbers
o Qualitative researchers practice reflexivity = consciously reflecting on how their
background or privileges have shaped their questions, and how this affects their
interpretations
o This is useful when studying sensitive topics because it seeks and values multiple
perspectives
Theory-Data Cycle
Scientists collect data to test, change, or adjust their theories
Harry Harlow (1958)
Cupboard theory: A mother is valuable to a baby mammal because she is the source of food
o Baby is hungry → gets food from mother → baby experiences a pleasant feeling
(reduced hunger)
Contact comfort theory: A mother is valuable to a baby mammal because of the comfort of
her warm skin
By separating these two variables, Harlow found that the baby monkeys spent most of their
time with the mother that had a warm, soft coat and only went to the mother with food
when they were hungry.
, Theory = a set of statements described as simply as possible
Hypothesis / expectation = the specific outcome the researcher wants to observe in a study to see if
the theory is accurate
Designed to test a part of a theory
Preferably pre-registered: after designing the study but before collecting data, the researcher
documents what outcome they expect
Data = a collection of observations
The data from a study supports or is consistent with a theory, but it does not prove it.
Afterward, replication follows: the study is repeated to test whether the result of the
previous study is consistent.
Theories are based on the weight of the evidence.
A good theory must be falsifiable.
Science is self-correcting: it discovers its wrong theories and improves them.
Questions
1. Explain what the roles of producer of research and consumer of research have in common and
how they differ.
o Both a producer and a consumer of research study the work of other psychologists who have
conducted research.
o A producer of research is strictly focused on designing experiments and conducting studies,
while the consumer of research critically examines the work of producers and applies it
where needed.
o Both roles are empirical.
2. What types of jobs require producer-of-research skills? What types of jobs require consumer-of-
research skills?
o Producer of research: laboratory work, research scientists
o Consumer of research: therapist, social worker
3. What happens to a theory if the data does not support the theories hypothesis? What might a
scientist say or do if the data does not support the theory?
o The theory is then adjusted based on the data that has been collected.
The scientist must critically examine the data and results compared to the theory and hypothesis.
4. Why can theories not be proven in science?
o To prove something, everything related to the theory must be tested, which is essentially
impossible.
Even if everything related to the theory were tested, there is always the possibility of an
exception, a case that does not support the hypothesis.
Therefore, it cannot be proven.
5. Merton described four norms that people in the scientific community should follow. How many
can you name without looking back?
o Universalism
o Communality
o Disinterestedness
o Organized skepticism
6. Describe at least two problems journalists might create when they try to publish science.
o They might dramatize the outcome of a hypothesis to attract readers, even if it doesn’t (fully)
match the actual findings of the study.
o The results of findings can be exaggerated, leading to misinformation.
