Sociology and Health Study Notes Latest Version
2025-2026
Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of
social sciences (especially sociology) to health issues. In general, it is often a
challenge to discuss the nexus between social science and health. Why medical
sociology? What does sociology have to do with medicine or health? This chapter
aims to answer these questions. It starts with the meaning of sociology and its links to
health studies—a definition and brief history of medical sociology and topic
description of the discipline. All health problems are conceived as social problems,
which are the core focus of sociological studies. This chapter explains the
characteristics of social problems with regard to health issues. Health problems are
viewed as parts of social anthologies by advancing the sociological dimensions of
health problems. The chapter then attempts to re-explain the topical description of
medical sociology (first advanced by David Mechanic in 1968) and includes some
current issues. The topical descriptions specifically include social aetiology of disease,
cultural beliefs and social response to illness, sociology of medical care and hospitals,
sociology of psychiatry, social transition and health care, traditional medicine
(alternative medicine), sociology of bioethics, health policy and politics, social
epidemiology, sociology of dying and death, and medical education.
Keywords: Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome,
Health Care Institution, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Social Transition
Introduction
Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of
sociology to health issues. In general, it is often a challenge to discuss the nexus
between social science and health. Why medical sociology? What does sociology
have to do with medicine or health? These are some of the pressing questions that
require explanations. The fundamental problem starts with a lack of deeper
knowledge of the meaning and focus of sociology. Therefore, it is necessary to
proceed by defining sociology and briefly explaining some of its foundational focus.
After this, its relevance to health will be explained.
Sociology has been variously defined since Auguste Comte coined the term in 1838.
Simply, sociology is the study of human society and social problems. Sociology is the
scientific study of social relations, institutions, and society (Smelser 1994) . In
addition, sociology can be defined as the scientific study of the dynamics of society
and their intricate connection to patterns of behaviour. It focuses on social structure
and how the structures interact to modify human behaviour, actions, opportunities,
and how the patterns of social existence engender social problems. Social institutions
include kinship, economic, political, education, and religious institutions. The
institutions are like pillars that hold up society because they are the constituent parts
of the social system (society). These parts are interdependent and interrelated with
specialised functions towards the survival of the society. This is why the human
society is often referred to as a social system. Every institution fulfils some functional
imperatives. The family institution supports the procreation and socialisation of new
,members of society while the economic institution deals with the production and
exchange of goods. The economic institution employs people from the family
institutions, and the family in turn needs the goods and services produced by the
economic institution. The health institutions are organised to cater to the well-being
and survival of human beings.
Generally, sociology employs scientific approach to study and develops
generalisations about human patterns, groupings, and behaviour. In a more concise
definition, the American Sociological Association (ASA) defined sociology “as the
study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human
behaviour”. Social life is the most central part of the focus of sociology; it implies the
connection which an individual holds with others in the society. To sociologists,
social life or interaction is the essence of human existence. The process of social
interaction itself may put individuals at risk of some communicable disease such as
tuberculosis (TB) , severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) , and measles. In terms
of communicable diseases, mere contact with an infected person (in the process of
social interaction) can normally put others at risk. The investigation of social “causes”
and consequences is basic in sociological research. There is often a problem of
biomedical reductionism , assuming “only the germ causes the disease” without an
interrogation of the social conditions enabling vulnerability to diseases. For instance,
commercial sex work puts an individual more at risk of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) than many other occupation groups: that is a kind of occupational
condition, which is a risk factor for HIV.
Health Problems as Social Problems
The historical focus of sociology is on social problems in human society. Social
problems include health problems, crime , deviance, violence , poverty , inequality,
population problems, delinquency, and institutional instability. Social forces such as
modernisation and industrialisation marked the beginning of unprecedented social
alteration, especially since the beginning of the eighteenth century. This social change
led to a number of problems as a result of changes in the relations of production. The
industrial revolution led to new forms of production systems, community relations,
migration , urbanisation , and especially new forms of employer-employee relations.
Industrialisation marked the overthrow of the family as an economic unit. This was a
tremendous change in the social system with resultant consequences, hence emerging
social problems such as unemployment, poverty, child labour , gender discrimination,
crime, and health problems. This is not to argue that all these problems only emerged
during the industrial revolution , but they rapidly multiplied during that period. Social
problems are conceived as strains within the system, seen as the product of certain
objective conditions within the society, which is inimical or detrimental to the
realisation of some norms or values for members of the society (Lyman et al. 1973,
p. 474) . Any issue that threatens the well-being or survival of the society is regarded
as a social problem. Weber (1995, p. 9) defined social problems “as a social
phenomenon that is damaging to the society or its members, is perceived as such, and
is socially remediable.”
, It is important to note that just as crime is damaging to the society or individual, so is
any health problem. Apart from this fact, a social problem can be identified through
the following characteristics, which include:
1.
It is an objective condition. This implies that it can be empirically defined. A
social problem exists as a condition that can be verified. Even when subjective
interpretation may be required, a social problem is an evidence-based problem,
not just mere perception of an individual but a general knowledge that is
usually definite. This represents a utilitarian view, which holds that social
problems are objective things, or what Durkheim regarded as social facts
(Smelser 1996) . Smelser observed that the assertion is like the medical model
which views social problems as a form of disease with an identifiable cause,
definite symptoms, and calls for a cure.
2.
3.
It has social aetiology or could be linked to it. This implies that a social
problem emanates from the pattern of social interaction, organisation,
association, or simply is engendered by social conditions. This point should be
noted as a relevant perspective in explanation of human health/diseases and
not an absolute explanation. For instance, Wellcome (2002, p. 30),
summarising Day Karen’s research report, observed that “… Falciparum
parasite [malaria] we see today arose about 3200–7000 years ago—an era that
coincides with the dawn of agriculture in Africa . This was a time of massive
ecological change, when humans began to live in large communities and the
rainforest was being cut down for slash-and-burn agriculture… there was also
a major change in the mosquito vector at that time, when it began biting
humans instead of animals… ” It is further observed that
P. falciparum migrated with Africans to other parts of the world. This means
that the process of migration aids the spread of malaria . This is why Smelser
(1996) also observed that the increasing world traffic of people would
internationalise many health problems. It is for this reason that HIV, first
diagnosed in the United States in the early 1980s (Jackson 2002) , is now a
global problem. Moreover, some diseases are rooted in genetics or heredity,
thereby multiplying through marriage patterns or human relationships. Holtz et
al. (2006, p. 1665) observed that it is impossible to understand population
health without considering the social origins of diseases—“the risk of
exposure, host susceptibility, course of disease, and disease outcome; each is
shaped by the social matrix… ” Social conditions are now invoked as
fundamental causes of diseases in human society because such conditions
affect exposure to diseases, as well as course and outcomes of diseases (see
Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_4 for social determinants of health,
Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6#Sec5 for fundamental cause theory).
4.
5.
2025-2026
Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of
social sciences (especially sociology) to health issues. In general, it is often a
challenge to discuss the nexus between social science and health. Why medical
sociology? What does sociology have to do with medicine or health? This chapter
aims to answer these questions. It starts with the meaning of sociology and its links to
health studies—a definition and brief history of medical sociology and topic
description of the discipline. All health problems are conceived as social problems,
which are the core focus of sociological studies. This chapter explains the
characteristics of social problems with regard to health issues. Health problems are
viewed as parts of social anthologies by advancing the sociological dimensions of
health problems. The chapter then attempts to re-explain the topical description of
medical sociology (first advanced by David Mechanic in 1968) and includes some
current issues. The topical descriptions specifically include social aetiology of disease,
cultural beliefs and social response to illness, sociology of medical care and hospitals,
sociology of psychiatry, social transition and health care, traditional medicine
(alternative medicine), sociology of bioethics, health policy and politics, social
epidemiology, sociology of dying and death, and medical education.
Keywords: Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome,
Health Care Institution, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, Social Transition
Introduction
Many people (including students of sociology) often wonder about the relevance of
sociology to health issues. In general, it is often a challenge to discuss the nexus
between social science and health. Why medical sociology? What does sociology
have to do with medicine or health? These are some of the pressing questions that
require explanations. The fundamental problem starts with a lack of deeper
knowledge of the meaning and focus of sociology. Therefore, it is necessary to
proceed by defining sociology and briefly explaining some of its foundational focus.
After this, its relevance to health will be explained.
Sociology has been variously defined since Auguste Comte coined the term in 1838.
Simply, sociology is the study of human society and social problems. Sociology is the
scientific study of social relations, institutions, and society (Smelser 1994) . In
addition, sociology can be defined as the scientific study of the dynamics of society
and their intricate connection to patterns of behaviour. It focuses on social structure
and how the structures interact to modify human behaviour, actions, opportunities,
and how the patterns of social existence engender social problems. Social institutions
include kinship, economic, political, education, and religious institutions. The
institutions are like pillars that hold up society because they are the constituent parts
of the social system (society). These parts are interdependent and interrelated with
specialised functions towards the survival of the society. This is why the human
society is often referred to as a social system. Every institution fulfils some functional
imperatives. The family institution supports the procreation and socialisation of new
,members of society while the economic institution deals with the production and
exchange of goods. The economic institution employs people from the family
institutions, and the family in turn needs the goods and services produced by the
economic institution. The health institutions are organised to cater to the well-being
and survival of human beings.
Generally, sociology employs scientific approach to study and develops
generalisations about human patterns, groupings, and behaviour. In a more concise
definition, the American Sociological Association (ASA) defined sociology “as the
study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human
behaviour”. Social life is the most central part of the focus of sociology; it implies the
connection which an individual holds with others in the society. To sociologists,
social life or interaction is the essence of human existence. The process of social
interaction itself may put individuals at risk of some communicable disease such as
tuberculosis (TB) , severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) , and measles. In terms
of communicable diseases, mere contact with an infected person (in the process of
social interaction) can normally put others at risk. The investigation of social “causes”
and consequences is basic in sociological research. There is often a problem of
biomedical reductionism , assuming “only the germ causes the disease” without an
interrogation of the social conditions enabling vulnerability to diseases. For instance,
commercial sex work puts an individual more at risk of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) than many other occupation groups: that is a kind of occupational
condition, which is a risk factor for HIV.
Health Problems as Social Problems
The historical focus of sociology is on social problems in human society. Social
problems include health problems, crime , deviance, violence , poverty , inequality,
population problems, delinquency, and institutional instability. Social forces such as
modernisation and industrialisation marked the beginning of unprecedented social
alteration, especially since the beginning of the eighteenth century. This social change
led to a number of problems as a result of changes in the relations of production. The
industrial revolution led to new forms of production systems, community relations,
migration , urbanisation , and especially new forms of employer-employee relations.
Industrialisation marked the overthrow of the family as an economic unit. This was a
tremendous change in the social system with resultant consequences, hence emerging
social problems such as unemployment, poverty, child labour , gender discrimination,
crime, and health problems. This is not to argue that all these problems only emerged
during the industrial revolution , but they rapidly multiplied during that period. Social
problems are conceived as strains within the system, seen as the product of certain
objective conditions within the society, which is inimical or detrimental to the
realisation of some norms or values for members of the society (Lyman et al. 1973,
p. 474) . Any issue that threatens the well-being or survival of the society is regarded
as a social problem. Weber (1995, p. 9) defined social problems “as a social
phenomenon that is damaging to the society or its members, is perceived as such, and
is socially remediable.”
, It is important to note that just as crime is damaging to the society or individual, so is
any health problem. Apart from this fact, a social problem can be identified through
the following characteristics, which include:
1.
It is an objective condition. This implies that it can be empirically defined. A
social problem exists as a condition that can be verified. Even when subjective
interpretation may be required, a social problem is an evidence-based problem,
not just mere perception of an individual but a general knowledge that is
usually definite. This represents a utilitarian view, which holds that social
problems are objective things, or what Durkheim regarded as social facts
(Smelser 1996) . Smelser observed that the assertion is like the medical model
which views social problems as a form of disease with an identifiable cause,
definite symptoms, and calls for a cure.
2.
3.
It has social aetiology or could be linked to it. This implies that a social
problem emanates from the pattern of social interaction, organisation,
association, or simply is engendered by social conditions. This point should be
noted as a relevant perspective in explanation of human health/diseases and
not an absolute explanation. For instance, Wellcome (2002, p. 30),
summarising Day Karen’s research report, observed that “… Falciparum
parasite [malaria] we see today arose about 3200–7000 years ago—an era that
coincides with the dawn of agriculture in Africa . This was a time of massive
ecological change, when humans began to live in large communities and the
rainforest was being cut down for slash-and-burn agriculture… there was also
a major change in the mosquito vector at that time, when it began biting
humans instead of animals… ” It is further observed that
P. falciparum migrated with Africans to other parts of the world. This means
that the process of migration aids the spread of malaria . This is why Smelser
(1996) also observed that the increasing world traffic of people would
internationalise many health problems. It is for this reason that HIV, first
diagnosed in the United States in the early 1980s (Jackson 2002) , is now a
global problem. Moreover, some diseases are rooted in genetics or heredity,
thereby multiplying through marriage patterns or human relationships. Holtz et
al. (2006, p. 1665) observed that it is impossible to understand population
health without considering the social origins of diseases—“the risk of
exposure, host susceptibility, course of disease, and disease outcome; each is
shaped by the social matrix… ” Social conditions are now invoked as
fundamental causes of diseases in human society because such conditions
affect exposure to diseases, as well as course and outcomes of diseases (see
Chap. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_4 for social determinants of health,
Sect. 10.1007/978-3-319-03986-2_6#Sec5 for fundamental cause theory).
4.
5.
