The Media
TOPIC 1 – THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL OF THE MEDIA
Traditional and New Media:
‘Traditional media’ refers to mass media that communicate
uniform messages in a one-way, non-interactive process to very
large mass audiences, e.g. traditional radio and TV broadcasting,
and print newspapers.
‘New Media’ refers to interactive digital technology and media
produces, and social media, which enable people to create, share
and exchange information and develop social networks. Such as the
Web 2.0 and Wireless Communication
The distinction between traditional and new media is becoming
blurred as mass media companies are increasingly using new media,
including social media.
Formal Controls on the Media:
The Law – e.g. Liberal laws, laws against inciting religious or racial
hatred.
Ofcom – the official media regulator.
The BBC trust, together with Ofcom, regulates the BBC, and seeks to
ensure the BBC remains independent of any pressure and influence
from any source.
The Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) monitors
standards of journalism in newspapers and magazines – e.g. issues
such as accuracy and invasion of privacy.
How Governments Influence and Control Media Output:
By Official Government press conferences and briefings of
Journalists – Boris Johnson Covid press conferences
Leaks and off-the-record briefings to Journalists – Boris Johnson
leaking Cabinet information to the press
The use of government spin doctors, who try to manipulate the
media and news stories – Such as Alistair Campbell within the New
Labour Government
Refusal to issue broadcasting licenses to those whom it deems
are unfit and unsuitable
The use of filtering and surveillance software to block access to
some internet sites – E.g. in China certain sites are banned and any
traces of the Tiananmen Square incident are banned
, Electronic surveillance of emails, monitoring of websites and
intercepts of mobile calls
Ownership of the Media:
Features of Media ownership:
Bagdikian highlighted that a handful of global media companies and
moguls – what he called ‘Lords of the Global Village’ – dominated the
world’s mass media. The features of mass media ownership include:
Concentration of ownership of all kinds of media in the hands of a
few very large companies – Such as Rupert Murdoch, Rupert
Murdoch’s holdings include major newspapers (The Sun, The Times,
The Wall Street Journal), Fox Corporation (Fox News, Fox Business,
and the Fox broadcast network), HarperCollins, and significant
digital and local media platforms, particularly in Australia.
Vertical integration – ownership of all aspects of a single medium,
e.g. a film production company that also owns the cinema chains
showing the films.
Horizontal integration – Media owners have interests in a range
of media
Diversification – Media companies have interests in a wide variety
of products besides the media, e.g. Virgin Media, trains, airline,
bank, etc.
Global Conglomeration – Owners have global media empires –
Like Rupert Murdoch
Synergy – media companies’ package and sell their products in
different forms to mutually promote sales and maximise profits, e.g.
a firm may also involve a book, a music CD or download, a computer
game, toys, etc. e.g. Disney empire
Technological convergence – several media technologies are
combined in a single device, e.g. a smartphone used to make calls,
text, watch films, surf the web, play games, listen to music, read
books, take photos, etc.
Bagdikian suggests this raises 3 questions:
1) Are the media simply spreading a limited number of dominant ideas
(the dominant ideology) that protect the interests of the dominant
class in society?
2) Do the owners of the media control the content of the media?
3) What effects do the media have on the audiences they aim at?
Who Owns the Media:
A statistic is often shared on social media that “five billionaires
own 80% of the UK media”. Who are these five people?
Supposedly, Rupert Murdoch (owner of News International),
, Richard Desmond (who was the owner of the Express), Viscount
Rothermere (owner of the Mail) and the Barclay Brothers
(owners of the Telegraph). These billionaires are, indeed, key
players, and there is no doubt that the ownership of the mainstream
media in the UK is concentrated in very few hands.
A few conglomerates like News UK, The DMG, reach and general
trust own over 70% of the Newspaper groups – Other key players
are Sky, ITV, Channel 5, moreover, there has been a growth in
online communicators such as Facebook and X – By far the largest is
the state broadcaster, the BBC.
While it is possible to overstate the power of these Media Moguls,
their dominance is still undeniable due to their growing online
presence in the digital age.
The term media mogul refers to an individual who owns a
significant share of a media company, arguably providing
them with significant control over that company’s media
content. The classic example is Rupert Murdoch, who owns a
number of newspapers and TV broadcasting companies around the
world. Curran (2003) points out that it has always been this way:
in 1937 four men owned approximately half of all newspapers sold
nationwide (including local newspapers).
Ideology, Control of the media, and the media content
The manipulative or instrumentalist approach to media content:
This is a traditional Marxist approach, adopted by writers like Ralph
Miliband. This suggests that:
Media owners directly influence media content, and
manipulate it to protect their interests and spread the dominant
ideology. For Marxists, the media promote incomplete and
distorted ‘preferred readings’ of new stories which the ruling
class would like audiences to believe
Editors, managers and journalists have little choice other than to
operate within the boundaries set down by the owners as they
depend on them for their jobs.
Media audiences are fed on a dumbed-down mass diet of
undemanding, trivial and uncritical content, which stops them
focusing on and challenging serious issues.
The Leveson Inquiry in 2012 uncovered a range of links between
media owners and governments, with media support given to
political parties in return for government policies favourable to the
interests of media owners.
They also suggest that Owners tell Journalists to maintain the
dominant ideology through facilitating the false class
consciousness - Althusser
, Curran (2003) found lots of evidence of owners directly
manipulating media content. In the middle of the 20th century,
“press barons” were quite open about their propagandist role,
and also that there have always been a lot more Conservative-
supporting newspapers than those critical of that party, which
reflects them serving the interests of their wealthy owners. He
argues that in the later 20th century and today owners are, if
anything, even more interventionist, with again Rupert Murdoch
being the obvious example.
Marcuse; A Commodification of Culture - Argued people were
also being controlled by a desire to own commodities which
the media persuaded them that they needed. Prompting a rise in
consumer culture. We need to buy this or capitalism will collapse
Furthermore, politicians clearly believe media moguls to have
a great deal of control over media content because they try
to get on the right side of them! Tony Blair famously flew to
Australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and was rewarded with the
support of the Sun. Several years later, David Cameron repeated
this with the same outcome.
There certainly are examples of owners directly interfering with the
content of the media. Richard Desmond, former owner of the
Express, apparently regularly visited the newspaper offices making
clear demand of what should be included. While Rupert
Murdoch claims he only took large, long-term decisions (such as
which party the paper would support at a general election or what
their view on the European Union should be) former editors of his
have suggested a much more hands-on approach. Andrew Neil,
who edited the Sunday Times for Murdoch, has says that Murdoch
was the de facto “editor in chief” of the Sun and, despite not
seeing himself in that role for the Times or the Sunday Times,
nevertheless he did make direct interventions (such as insisting that
no articles were published that would offend the Malaysian prime
minster of the day).
Evaluation of the manipulative/instrumental approach:
It assumes the media audiences are passive and easily
manipulated
Pluralists like James Whale argue there is a wide range of
opinion in the media. The media’s owners are primarily concerned
with making profits. This means attracting large audiences to gain
advertisers, and the only means of doing this is to provide what
the audiences – not the owners – want.
The state regulates media ownership so no one person or company
has too much influence.
Pluralists and Neophiliacs (optimists who welcome and embrace
the new media) suggest the rise of interactive digital media and of
TOPIC 1 – THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
OWNERSHIP AND CONTROL OF THE MEDIA
Traditional and New Media:
‘Traditional media’ refers to mass media that communicate
uniform messages in a one-way, non-interactive process to very
large mass audiences, e.g. traditional radio and TV broadcasting,
and print newspapers.
‘New Media’ refers to interactive digital technology and media
produces, and social media, which enable people to create, share
and exchange information and develop social networks. Such as the
Web 2.0 and Wireless Communication
The distinction between traditional and new media is becoming
blurred as mass media companies are increasingly using new media,
including social media.
Formal Controls on the Media:
The Law – e.g. Liberal laws, laws against inciting religious or racial
hatred.
Ofcom – the official media regulator.
The BBC trust, together with Ofcom, regulates the BBC, and seeks to
ensure the BBC remains independent of any pressure and influence
from any source.
The Independent Press Standards Organisation (IPSO) monitors
standards of journalism in newspapers and magazines – e.g. issues
such as accuracy and invasion of privacy.
How Governments Influence and Control Media Output:
By Official Government press conferences and briefings of
Journalists – Boris Johnson Covid press conferences
Leaks and off-the-record briefings to Journalists – Boris Johnson
leaking Cabinet information to the press
The use of government spin doctors, who try to manipulate the
media and news stories – Such as Alistair Campbell within the New
Labour Government
Refusal to issue broadcasting licenses to those whom it deems
are unfit and unsuitable
The use of filtering and surveillance software to block access to
some internet sites – E.g. in China certain sites are banned and any
traces of the Tiananmen Square incident are banned
, Electronic surveillance of emails, monitoring of websites and
intercepts of mobile calls
Ownership of the Media:
Features of Media ownership:
Bagdikian highlighted that a handful of global media companies and
moguls – what he called ‘Lords of the Global Village’ – dominated the
world’s mass media. The features of mass media ownership include:
Concentration of ownership of all kinds of media in the hands of a
few very large companies – Such as Rupert Murdoch, Rupert
Murdoch’s holdings include major newspapers (The Sun, The Times,
The Wall Street Journal), Fox Corporation (Fox News, Fox Business,
and the Fox broadcast network), HarperCollins, and significant
digital and local media platforms, particularly in Australia.
Vertical integration – ownership of all aspects of a single medium,
e.g. a film production company that also owns the cinema chains
showing the films.
Horizontal integration – Media owners have interests in a range
of media
Diversification – Media companies have interests in a wide variety
of products besides the media, e.g. Virgin Media, trains, airline,
bank, etc.
Global Conglomeration – Owners have global media empires –
Like Rupert Murdoch
Synergy – media companies’ package and sell their products in
different forms to mutually promote sales and maximise profits, e.g.
a firm may also involve a book, a music CD or download, a computer
game, toys, etc. e.g. Disney empire
Technological convergence – several media technologies are
combined in a single device, e.g. a smartphone used to make calls,
text, watch films, surf the web, play games, listen to music, read
books, take photos, etc.
Bagdikian suggests this raises 3 questions:
1) Are the media simply spreading a limited number of dominant ideas
(the dominant ideology) that protect the interests of the dominant
class in society?
2) Do the owners of the media control the content of the media?
3) What effects do the media have on the audiences they aim at?
Who Owns the Media:
A statistic is often shared on social media that “five billionaires
own 80% of the UK media”. Who are these five people?
Supposedly, Rupert Murdoch (owner of News International),
, Richard Desmond (who was the owner of the Express), Viscount
Rothermere (owner of the Mail) and the Barclay Brothers
(owners of the Telegraph). These billionaires are, indeed, key
players, and there is no doubt that the ownership of the mainstream
media in the UK is concentrated in very few hands.
A few conglomerates like News UK, The DMG, reach and general
trust own over 70% of the Newspaper groups – Other key players
are Sky, ITV, Channel 5, moreover, there has been a growth in
online communicators such as Facebook and X – By far the largest is
the state broadcaster, the BBC.
While it is possible to overstate the power of these Media Moguls,
their dominance is still undeniable due to their growing online
presence in the digital age.
The term media mogul refers to an individual who owns a
significant share of a media company, arguably providing
them with significant control over that company’s media
content. The classic example is Rupert Murdoch, who owns a
number of newspapers and TV broadcasting companies around the
world. Curran (2003) points out that it has always been this way:
in 1937 four men owned approximately half of all newspapers sold
nationwide (including local newspapers).
Ideology, Control of the media, and the media content
The manipulative or instrumentalist approach to media content:
This is a traditional Marxist approach, adopted by writers like Ralph
Miliband. This suggests that:
Media owners directly influence media content, and
manipulate it to protect their interests and spread the dominant
ideology. For Marxists, the media promote incomplete and
distorted ‘preferred readings’ of new stories which the ruling
class would like audiences to believe
Editors, managers and journalists have little choice other than to
operate within the boundaries set down by the owners as they
depend on them for their jobs.
Media audiences are fed on a dumbed-down mass diet of
undemanding, trivial and uncritical content, which stops them
focusing on and challenging serious issues.
The Leveson Inquiry in 2012 uncovered a range of links between
media owners and governments, with media support given to
political parties in return for government policies favourable to the
interests of media owners.
They also suggest that Owners tell Journalists to maintain the
dominant ideology through facilitating the false class
consciousness - Althusser
, Curran (2003) found lots of evidence of owners directly
manipulating media content. In the middle of the 20th century,
“press barons” were quite open about their propagandist role,
and also that there have always been a lot more Conservative-
supporting newspapers than those critical of that party, which
reflects them serving the interests of their wealthy owners. He
argues that in the later 20th century and today owners are, if
anything, even more interventionist, with again Rupert Murdoch
being the obvious example.
Marcuse; A Commodification of Culture - Argued people were
also being controlled by a desire to own commodities which
the media persuaded them that they needed. Prompting a rise in
consumer culture. We need to buy this or capitalism will collapse
Furthermore, politicians clearly believe media moguls to have
a great deal of control over media content because they try
to get on the right side of them! Tony Blair famously flew to
Australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and was rewarded with the
support of the Sun. Several years later, David Cameron repeated
this with the same outcome.
There certainly are examples of owners directly interfering with the
content of the media. Richard Desmond, former owner of the
Express, apparently regularly visited the newspaper offices making
clear demand of what should be included. While Rupert
Murdoch claims he only took large, long-term decisions (such as
which party the paper would support at a general election or what
their view on the European Union should be) former editors of his
have suggested a much more hands-on approach. Andrew Neil,
who edited the Sunday Times for Murdoch, has says that Murdoch
was the de facto “editor in chief” of the Sun and, despite not
seeing himself in that role for the Times or the Sunday Times,
nevertheless he did make direct interventions (such as insisting that
no articles were published that would offend the Malaysian prime
minster of the day).
Evaluation of the manipulative/instrumental approach:
It assumes the media audiences are passive and easily
manipulated
Pluralists like James Whale argue there is a wide range of
opinion in the media. The media’s owners are primarily concerned
with making profits. This means attracting large audiences to gain
advertisers, and the only means of doing this is to provide what
the audiences – not the owners – want.
The state regulates media ownership so no one person or company
has too much influence.
Pluralists and Neophiliacs (optimists who welcome and embrace
the new media) suggest the rise of interactive digital media and of
