1
,CHAPTER 1—PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
CHAPTER OUTLINE ooff
I. Why study personality? The study of human personality helps us understand
ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
ourselves and other people better and gives us a greater appreciation for the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
complexity of human experience.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
II. Definition of Personality: Personality is the dynamic and organized set of
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences his or her
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
cognitions, motivations and behaviors in various situations.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
III. Personality and Science: Personality is a scientific enterprise concerned with the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
description, explanation, prediction, and control of events.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
A. Components of Science: Theories and Research Methods
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. What are theories? A theory is a system of interrelated conceptual
ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
statements that are created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
a set of phenomena.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. Kinds of theories ooff ooff
a. inductive-sets of general summary statements about phenomena derived from ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
facts.ooff
b. deductive-theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
propositions and then tested by the collection of data. Deductive theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
consist of postulates, propositions, conceptual definitions, operational
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
definitions, hypotheses, and empirical observations.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. postulates-the fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are taken ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
as self- evidently true in order to provide a clear and focused direction
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
for theorizing and research.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. propositions- general relational statements that may be true or false. They are
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
not tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are conceptually defined ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
and operationalized so they can tested and confirmed or disconfirmed through
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
empirical testing. Hypotheses are tentative theoretical statements about how
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
events are related to one another, often stated as predictions.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
a. a prior predictions-predictions made before the collection of data.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
4. conceptual definitions- concepts in the hypotheses are defined precisely so that
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
accurate measures of the concepts can be devised.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
5. operational definitions- procedures (or operations) used to define particular
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
constructs.
ooff
6. empirical observations-observations of phenomena made by investigators.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2
,1V. Research Methods Used to Test Theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.Experimental Method-technique for studying cause-and- effect relationships o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
between variables. It involves the manipulation of independent variables and
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
observation of the effects of the manipulation(s) on dependent variables.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. independent variables-the variables actively manipulated by the experimenter
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
so that their effects on individual behavior can be observed.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. dependent variables-changes in behavior that occur as a result of the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
manipulation of conditions by an experimenter.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. control group-the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. It is
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
manipulation(s) on the dependent variable(s) can be accurately judged.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. Correlational Method-general procedure for establishing an association or o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
relationship between events.
ooff ooff ooff
1. positive correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
increases in the scores on the other variable.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. negative correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
associated with decreases in the scores on the other.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. no relation-the distributions of scores on the two variables are random
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
C. Case Study Method-technique involving the intensive study of a single person
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
in order to understand his or her unique personality and behavior.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. post-hoc explanation-explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
V. Ethics for Conducting Research
ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.informed consent-the practice of telling study participants about the nature
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
of their participation in a proposed experiment and then obtaining their
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
written agreement to participate.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. debriefing-informing study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
after it is completed.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
VI. Criteria for Evaluating Theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.Comprehensiveness-theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. Precision and testability- adequate theories should contain constructs and
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
relational statements that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
Under such conditions, theories can be more accurately tested.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
C. Parsimony- adequate theories should be as economical as possible, while still
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
adequately accounting for the phenomena in their domain.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
D.Empirical validity- the hypotheses of theories are tested by the collection
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
of data to determine whether or not they are accurate.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3
, E. Heuristic value- adequate theories should be challenging; they should stimulate
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
new ideas and new research.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
F. Applied value- adequate theories are capable of providing creative solutions to
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
problems that are of interest and concern to people in society.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
4
,CHAPTER 1—PERSONALITY AND THE SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
CHAPTER OUTLINE ooff
I. Why study personality? The study of human personality helps us understand
ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
ourselves and other people better and gives us a greater appreciation for the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
complexity of human experience.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
II. Definition of Personality: Personality is the dynamic and organized set of
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
characteristics possessed by an individual that uniquely influences his or her
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
cognitions, motivations and behaviors in various situations.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
III. Personality and Science: Personality is a scientific enterprise concerned with the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
description, explanation, prediction, and control of events.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
A. Components of Science: Theories and Research Methods
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. What are theories? A theory is a system of interrelated conceptual
ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
statements that are created by investigators to account for a phenomenon or
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
a set of phenomena.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. Kinds of theories ooff ooff
a. inductive-sets of general summary statements about phenomena derived from ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
facts.ooff
b. deductive-theories in which specific hypotheses are derived from abstract ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
propositions and then tested by the collection of data. Deductive theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
consist of postulates, propositions, conceptual definitions, operational
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
definitions, hypotheses, and empirical observations.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. postulates-the fundamental or core assumptions of a theory. They are taken ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
as self- evidently true in order to provide a clear and focused direction
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
for theorizing and research.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. propositions- general relational statements that may be true or false. They are
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
not tested directly; instead, hypotheses are derived from them.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. hypotheses-specific propositions containing constructs that are conceptually defined ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
and operationalized so they can tested and confirmed or disconfirmed through
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
empirical testing. Hypotheses are tentative theoretical statements about how
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
events are related to one another, often stated as predictions.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
a. a prior predictions-predictions made before the collection of data.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
4. conceptual definitions- concepts in the hypotheses are defined precisely so that
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
accurate measures of the concepts can be devised.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
5. operational definitions- procedures (or operations) used to define particular
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
constructs.
ooff
6. empirical observations-observations of phenomena made by investigators.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2
,1V. Research Methods Used to Test Theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.Experimental Method-technique for studying cause-and- effect relationships o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
between variables. It involves the manipulation of independent variables and
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
observation of the effects of the manipulation(s) on dependent variables.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. independent variables-the variables actively manipulated by the experimenter
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
so that their effects on individual behavior can be observed.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. dependent variables-changes in behavior that occur as a result of the
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
manipulation of conditions by an experimenter.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. control group-the group that does not receive the experimental treatment. It is
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
designed to provide baseline data against which the effects of the experimental
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
manipulation(s) on the dependent variable(s) can be accurately judged.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. Correlational Method-general procedure for establishing an association or o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
relationship between events.
ooff ooff ooff
1. positive correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are associated with
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
increases in the scores on the other variable.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
2. negative correlation-increases in the scores on one variable are
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
associated with decreases in the scores on the other.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3. no relation-the distributions of scores on the two variables are random
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
C. Case Study Method-technique involving the intensive study of a single person
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
in order to understand his or her unique personality and behavior.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
1. post-hoc explanation-explanation of a phenomenon given after its occurrence.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
V. Ethics for Conducting Research
ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.informed consent-the practice of telling study participants about the nature
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
of their participation in a proposed experiment and then obtaining their
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
written agreement to participate.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. debriefing-informing study participants of the true nature and purpose of a study o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
after it is completed.
ooff ooff ooff ooff
VI. Criteria for Evaluating Theories
ooff ooff ooff ooff
A.Comprehensiveness-theories are judged as more adequate and useful if they o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
encompass and account for a wide range and variety of phenomena.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
B. Precision and testability- adequate theories should contain constructs and
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
relational statements that are clearly and explicitly stated and measured.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
Under such conditions, theories can be more accurately tested.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
C. Parsimony- adequate theories should be as economical as possible, while still
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
adequately accounting for the phenomena in their domain.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
D.Empirical validity- the hypotheses of theories are tested by the collection
o o f f ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
of data to determine whether or not they are accurate.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
3
, E. Heuristic value- adequate theories should be challenging; they should stimulate
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
new ideas and new research.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
F. Applied value- adequate theories are capable of providing creative solutions to
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
problems that are of interest and concern to people in society.
ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff ooff
4
