Chapter 3: Becoming “The World” 1000-1300
Introduction: “When does history begin?”
● Historians don’t agree on a specific time frame that marks the “beginning” of world history, but on the periodization
○ Periodization is when history is split into periods of time, often because of a major event:
■ The start of complex societies that divided labor, often based on gender (~12,000 years ago)
■ The formation of religions and cultures that spread to other societies (~4,000 years ago)
■ Invention of writing systems to record trade, events, and ideas (~4,8000 years ago)
■ Interactions between societies and people from all continents (~600 years ago)
○ Evidence based selections of periods, mainly after a specific event.
○ Beginning of human history for this textbook is 1200 C.E.
■ Rich history of developed societies around the world beginning to interact with each other
Development of Maritime Trade:
● 10th century: Sea routes → more important than land routes
● Chinese magnetic needle compass contributed to this growth:
■ 11th century sailors from Guangzhou used it for navigation → spread amongst sailors
○ New ships allowed for more control on the sea: Dhows, junks, cogs
■ Dhows: ships with triangular sails → Lateens → Used monsoon winds on Arabian Sea
■ Junks: massive ships with several decks, carried up to 500 men; sailed on South China seas
■ Cogs: single mast, square sail, connected the Azores all the way to Iceland; sailed on the Atlantic
○ Ships could carry a lot more cargo:
● Dhows: 5 tons
● Cogs: 200 tons
● Junks: 500 tons
○ Governments like Song Dynasty and Fatimid caliphate provided protection for maritime trading
○ Entrepôts start to form: transshipment centers/port cities
■ Alexandra, Egypt
■ Quilon, south India
■ Melaka, Malaysian Archipelago
■ Quanzhou, China
The Islamic World in a Time of Political Fragmentation:
● Islamic world was very diverse → Many non-Muslims including:
○ Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian communities
■ Islamic rulers practiced religious toleration; communities able to choose their own religious leaders
■ Had to pay a special tax: jizya
● Turkish pastoralists from the steppe lands invade nearby states in search of better lands
● Islamic political institutions start to fragment around the same time:
○ Shiism unites the Islamic world from 950-1050 CE
○ Sunni Muslims challenge Shiite power → Shiite Buyid family surrender to Seljuk Turks in Baghdad (1055)
■ Sunni regime in Egypt take over the Shiite Fatimids a century later
○ Seljuk Turks establish a nomadic state in Mesopotamia, taking over the Abbasid state
■ The invaders destroyed many learning institutions, public libraries, and looted antiquities
■ Outposts in Syria and Palestine after establishing in Baghdad → Anatolia after defeating Byzantine
● Islamic heartland split into three regions by 13th century:
○ East: fragments of the old Abbasid empire; caliphs claiming rule while deferring Turkish commanders
○ Core of Islamic world: Egypt, Syria, Arabian Peninsula; Non-Arab military men held power
, ○ Farther west: North Africa; Arab rulers held power but were influenced by Berbers (northern Sahara)
● The Spread of Sufism:
○ Islam spread through a mystical and community based form of the religion: Sufism: Sufi → “wool” (suf)
■ Performed large rituals, experienced God’s love through poems:
● Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273) → Founder of the Mevlevi Sufi order
■ Despite pushback from ulama (scholars), Sufism spread quickly
● The emotional and social aspect appealed to many
● It offered a unifying belief within Islam
● Sufi missionaries spread it to India, Southeast Asia, and across the Saharan
○ Islam became more encompassing overtime, embracing:
■ Persian literature
■ Turkish methods of rule
■ Arabic contributions in law, literature, and science
● What was Islam?
○ Muhammed’s original religion for the Arab people, Islam, had transformed through time and influence
■ Many Non-Arab converts by 1300, spanned across Afro-Eurasia
■ Persian became a language of Islam → Islamic philosophy and art
■ Turkish became another language → Islamic Law and Administration
○ Universities form under Muslim scholars:
■ al-Qarawiyyin (859CE) → Fez, Morocco
■ al-Azhar (970CE) → Cairo, Egypt
○ Period of flourishing ideas and learning:
■ Abu al-Qasim Firdawsi (920-1020) → Represented Persian pride
● Celebrated Persian culture in the poem “Shah Namah” (Book of Kings)
■ Ibn Rushd (1126-1198) known as Averroës:
● influenced by Aristotle: faith and reason were compatible.
○ Islam became one out of the four major cultural spheres → Laid foundation for the Middle East
■ Arabic became widespread
■ Turks became more powerful → Ottoman Empire
India as a Cultural Mosaic:
● Became a center for trade, migration, and diffusion of culture of Afro-Eurasian people
● 80 Million inhabitants in 100 CE → Second-largest population in the region (Behind China’s 120 Million)
● Turks migrated into India and brought new Islamic beliefs
● Shifting Political Structures:
○ Rajas controlled the land amongst other rajas → Support from Brahamans by giving out land to them
■ The Brahmans used the land to built temples to convert local indigenous hunter-gatherers
● Taught how to cultivate the land after they converted → Farming
● This strategy allowed Brahamans to spread Hinduism as well as increasing agrarian tax base
○ Brahmans repaid rajas by making elaborate genealogies for them (ancestral reports)
○ Rajas used it to demonstrate that they were also refined in the Sanskrit culture
○ Rajas → no power or resources to defend against Turkish warlords entering; depleted from fighting off invaders
■ Mahmud of Ghazna (998-1030 CE): Initiated many expeditions into Northern India from Afghan region
● Ghazni: made his capital an Islamic center of learning to achieve higher status within Islam
● Ghaznavid Empire (977-1186 CE) Expansion in early 11th century marked its height
■ Muhammad Chrui later led another period of Islamic Turkish invasions across northern India (Delhi)
● Wars between Indus and Ganges rivers: moved to lower Ganges Valley
, ○ Decentralized states of the rajas toppled
○ Turks took over, introducing their own customs → Accepted local social structures
○ Constructed grand mosques and large libraries → Scholars could learn and share wisdom
○ The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
■ Most powerful and lasting out of all the Turkish Muslim regimes
■ Rulers were tolerant leading to strengthened cultural diversity
■ Local artisans were recruited for building projects that symbolized Indian architecture
● Grand palaces and mosques
■ The Sultans didn’t force Islam in South Asian regions leading to a natural development of these areas
● Persian Zoroastrian traders moved and settled on the coast of modern-day Mumbai
● Arab traders controlled the Malabar coast further south
■ Overall, the Delhi Sultanate was a very powerful and wealthy kingdom that provided stability among the
region, while also maintaining the original culture.
● What was India?
○ India became and was known for being the most diverse and tolerant region during the 11th, 12th, 13th centuries
○ Local Hindu populations assimilated the Turks → These newcomers soon thought of themselves as Indian
■ Still retained Islamic beliefs and the Steppe ways
■ Continued to wear culturally identifying trousers and robes as well as showing off their horse riding skills
■ The local population mixed into some aspects of the Turks as well including:
● Wearing the same types of tunics and trousers which soon became the characteristics of central
Asian people
○ Language was an immediate example of the diversity and mixing of culture in India:
■ Sultans spoke Turkish languages but embraced other languages
■ Persian literature was regarded as a high cultural achievement, and was made the administrative language
■ Local Hindus continued to speak their native languages, adhering to the varna hierarchy
○ Hindu worship was allowed and tolerated but people had to pay a tax, the jizya similar to southwestern empires
○ Islam in India proved that it didn’t have to be a conquering and oppressive religion
○ Buddhism was heavily mixed into Vedic Brahmanism → Hinduism
■ Practices such as nonviolence (ahimsa) and vegetarianism were absorbed
■ The two religions became so intertwined that Buddha became a deity in Hinduism
Song China: Insiders versus Outsiders:
● China is still in world power in 1000 CE, even after the fragmentation left by the Tang Dynasty
○ 907: Tang dynasty split off into many smaller regional kingdoms, governed by military generals
○ 960: Zhao Kuangyin, one of the many military generals, reunited China and ending the fragmentation
■ Prevailing and using the Mandate of Heaven as justification, he created the Song Dynasty
○ The next three centuries saw economic and political growth but:
■ Invasions from Nomadic tribes north of the region would keep the Song Dynasty from securing reign
■ A nomadic tribe called the Mongol would ultimately bring the downfall of the Song dynasty
● Song influence would have already made a massive impact on the surrounding regions, including
Southeastern Asia
● Economic and Political Developments:
○ Chinese traders had also engaged in Afro-Eurasian long distance trade
○ China’s economic success largely resulted from its strong agrarian base → Vast fields of wheat, millet, and rice
■ Able to feed a massive population of 120 million at its peak
■ Breakthroughs like the iron-plow and water buffalo allowed for this growth
○ Manufacturing flourished as well:
■ Piston-driven bellows to pump air into smelting furnaces
■ Iron production of Song China in the 11th Century could compare to Europe in the 18th century
, ○ Inventions such as gunpowder would spread through trade and lead to the creation of new weapons
■ Incendiaries → (fireworks, firelances, explosives)
■ Porcelains sedimented itself as a very unique craft from China
● Demand for porcelain in Afro-Eurasia was extremely high
○ Song Dynasty China begun to experience an early version of the first manufacturing revolution
■ Creating finished goods on a large scale to be exported for consumption world wide
■ The demand for metal currency couldn’t be met, fueling East Asia’s desire for gold
● Merchant guilds* in Shanxi developed early versions of paper money (flying cash)
○ Merchant guild: association of merchants formed for mutual benefit (protection)
● Paper money contributed to inflation later on
○ Built upon Tang Dynasty’s bureaucracy through very competitive Civil Service Exams
■ Expanded opportunities: Hereditary aristocracy → highly educated class of officials
● China’s Neighbors: Nomads, Japan, and Southeast Asia
○ Northern nomadic tribes sought to copy China → Formed dynasties and adopted Chinese institutions
■ Envisioned to conquer China → United and fought against China on the Steppes
● Despite advanced weapons, the Song army couldn’t match the united power of the nomads
○ Steel tipped arrows from crossbows, flamethrowers, and “crouching tiger” catapults
● China used its economic success to “buy off” the invaders → Economic instability + inflation
○ Leaders in Japan distanced themselves from Chinese influence but it’s still apparent that Japanese culture and arts
are heavily impacted by China:
■ Imperial court in the capital of Heian (Kyoto) was directly modeled after the Chinese Capital (Chang’an)
■ In the outskirts of Japan, less Chinese influence can be seen. Japan formed into a feudalistic society
● What was China?
○ As exchanges increased with the outside, “insiders” of China began to feel a distinct sense of cultural superiority
■ The true “insiders” of China began to call themselves the “Han” people.
■ Song China became increasingly resentful to the outside regions of China
● Calling and treating outsiders as “barbarians”
○ The invention of the printing press by Bi Sheng around 1040 made China in 1300 the most advanced in printing:
■ Books were published, classical Chinese was made the common language of educated classes
● Medical texts and calendars → Books Confucian teachings, works of history, philosophy
○ Overall, China’s strong government, huge population, and innovations as well as its tremendous impact on the
surrounding region made it not only one of the four major cultural spheres, but also the wealthiest of them.
Christian Europe:
● Highly decentralized region of very small kingdoms → United by Christianity → Start calling themselves as “European”
● The Franks: rulers of the collapsed Charlemagne Empire: Oversaw many small manors
○ Manorialism: Similar to feudalism, served as a basic unit of economic power. Manors were made up with:
■ The lords home or castle (fortified)
■ Surrounding fields for agriculture worked by peasants
■ Small village where the peasants lived
■ Mainly an agricultural based “economy”, although small forms of trade also occurred
● As many as 200,000 peasants moved from Northern Europe to central Europe between 1100 and 1200
○ The region offered freedom from their lords for peasants, despite its harsh climate and landscape
○ Lords were often unjust, imposing forced labor for the peasants
○ These new migrants created an interesting dynamic among the locals’ economy based on:
■ Gathering honey, hunting, and the slave trade
○ Small farmsteads and towns appeared along the 1000 miles coast of the Baltic Sea
● Russian lands → inspired/based off of Byzantium, located between the steppes of Inner Eurasia and Central Europe
○ Steppe: A large field or area of empty grassland, without trees or forests.
○ These cities relied on long-distance trade, unlike others that relied on agriculture
Introduction: “When does history begin?”
● Historians don’t agree on a specific time frame that marks the “beginning” of world history, but on the periodization
○ Periodization is when history is split into periods of time, often because of a major event:
■ The start of complex societies that divided labor, often based on gender (~12,000 years ago)
■ The formation of religions and cultures that spread to other societies (~4,000 years ago)
■ Invention of writing systems to record trade, events, and ideas (~4,8000 years ago)
■ Interactions between societies and people from all continents (~600 years ago)
○ Evidence based selections of periods, mainly after a specific event.
○ Beginning of human history for this textbook is 1200 C.E.
■ Rich history of developed societies around the world beginning to interact with each other
Development of Maritime Trade:
● 10th century: Sea routes → more important than land routes
● Chinese magnetic needle compass contributed to this growth:
■ 11th century sailors from Guangzhou used it for navigation → spread amongst sailors
○ New ships allowed for more control on the sea: Dhows, junks, cogs
■ Dhows: ships with triangular sails → Lateens → Used monsoon winds on Arabian Sea
■ Junks: massive ships with several decks, carried up to 500 men; sailed on South China seas
■ Cogs: single mast, square sail, connected the Azores all the way to Iceland; sailed on the Atlantic
○ Ships could carry a lot more cargo:
● Dhows: 5 tons
● Cogs: 200 tons
● Junks: 500 tons
○ Governments like Song Dynasty and Fatimid caliphate provided protection for maritime trading
○ Entrepôts start to form: transshipment centers/port cities
■ Alexandra, Egypt
■ Quilon, south India
■ Melaka, Malaysian Archipelago
■ Quanzhou, China
The Islamic World in a Time of Political Fragmentation:
● Islamic world was very diverse → Many non-Muslims including:
○ Jewish, Christian, and Zoroastrian communities
■ Islamic rulers practiced religious toleration; communities able to choose their own religious leaders
■ Had to pay a special tax: jizya
● Turkish pastoralists from the steppe lands invade nearby states in search of better lands
● Islamic political institutions start to fragment around the same time:
○ Shiism unites the Islamic world from 950-1050 CE
○ Sunni Muslims challenge Shiite power → Shiite Buyid family surrender to Seljuk Turks in Baghdad (1055)
■ Sunni regime in Egypt take over the Shiite Fatimids a century later
○ Seljuk Turks establish a nomadic state in Mesopotamia, taking over the Abbasid state
■ The invaders destroyed many learning institutions, public libraries, and looted antiquities
■ Outposts in Syria and Palestine after establishing in Baghdad → Anatolia after defeating Byzantine
● Islamic heartland split into three regions by 13th century:
○ East: fragments of the old Abbasid empire; caliphs claiming rule while deferring Turkish commanders
○ Core of Islamic world: Egypt, Syria, Arabian Peninsula; Non-Arab military men held power
, ○ Farther west: North Africa; Arab rulers held power but were influenced by Berbers (northern Sahara)
● The Spread of Sufism:
○ Islam spread through a mystical and community based form of the religion: Sufism: Sufi → “wool” (suf)
■ Performed large rituals, experienced God’s love through poems:
● Jalal al-Din Rumi (1207-1273) → Founder of the Mevlevi Sufi order
■ Despite pushback from ulama (scholars), Sufism spread quickly
● The emotional and social aspect appealed to many
● It offered a unifying belief within Islam
● Sufi missionaries spread it to India, Southeast Asia, and across the Saharan
○ Islam became more encompassing overtime, embracing:
■ Persian literature
■ Turkish methods of rule
■ Arabic contributions in law, literature, and science
● What was Islam?
○ Muhammed’s original religion for the Arab people, Islam, had transformed through time and influence
■ Many Non-Arab converts by 1300, spanned across Afro-Eurasia
■ Persian became a language of Islam → Islamic philosophy and art
■ Turkish became another language → Islamic Law and Administration
○ Universities form under Muslim scholars:
■ al-Qarawiyyin (859CE) → Fez, Morocco
■ al-Azhar (970CE) → Cairo, Egypt
○ Period of flourishing ideas and learning:
■ Abu al-Qasim Firdawsi (920-1020) → Represented Persian pride
● Celebrated Persian culture in the poem “Shah Namah” (Book of Kings)
■ Ibn Rushd (1126-1198) known as Averroës:
● influenced by Aristotle: faith and reason were compatible.
○ Islam became one out of the four major cultural spheres → Laid foundation for the Middle East
■ Arabic became widespread
■ Turks became more powerful → Ottoman Empire
India as a Cultural Mosaic:
● Became a center for trade, migration, and diffusion of culture of Afro-Eurasian people
● 80 Million inhabitants in 100 CE → Second-largest population in the region (Behind China’s 120 Million)
● Turks migrated into India and brought new Islamic beliefs
● Shifting Political Structures:
○ Rajas controlled the land amongst other rajas → Support from Brahamans by giving out land to them
■ The Brahmans used the land to built temples to convert local indigenous hunter-gatherers
● Taught how to cultivate the land after they converted → Farming
● This strategy allowed Brahamans to spread Hinduism as well as increasing agrarian tax base
○ Brahmans repaid rajas by making elaborate genealogies for them (ancestral reports)
○ Rajas used it to demonstrate that they were also refined in the Sanskrit culture
○ Rajas → no power or resources to defend against Turkish warlords entering; depleted from fighting off invaders
■ Mahmud of Ghazna (998-1030 CE): Initiated many expeditions into Northern India from Afghan region
● Ghazni: made his capital an Islamic center of learning to achieve higher status within Islam
● Ghaznavid Empire (977-1186 CE) Expansion in early 11th century marked its height
■ Muhammad Chrui later led another period of Islamic Turkish invasions across northern India (Delhi)
● Wars between Indus and Ganges rivers: moved to lower Ganges Valley
, ○ Decentralized states of the rajas toppled
○ Turks took over, introducing their own customs → Accepted local social structures
○ Constructed grand mosques and large libraries → Scholars could learn and share wisdom
○ The Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)
■ Most powerful and lasting out of all the Turkish Muslim regimes
■ Rulers were tolerant leading to strengthened cultural diversity
■ Local artisans were recruited for building projects that symbolized Indian architecture
● Grand palaces and mosques
■ The Sultans didn’t force Islam in South Asian regions leading to a natural development of these areas
● Persian Zoroastrian traders moved and settled on the coast of modern-day Mumbai
● Arab traders controlled the Malabar coast further south
■ Overall, the Delhi Sultanate was a very powerful and wealthy kingdom that provided stability among the
region, while also maintaining the original culture.
● What was India?
○ India became and was known for being the most diverse and tolerant region during the 11th, 12th, 13th centuries
○ Local Hindu populations assimilated the Turks → These newcomers soon thought of themselves as Indian
■ Still retained Islamic beliefs and the Steppe ways
■ Continued to wear culturally identifying trousers and robes as well as showing off their horse riding skills
■ The local population mixed into some aspects of the Turks as well including:
● Wearing the same types of tunics and trousers which soon became the characteristics of central
Asian people
○ Language was an immediate example of the diversity and mixing of culture in India:
■ Sultans spoke Turkish languages but embraced other languages
■ Persian literature was regarded as a high cultural achievement, and was made the administrative language
■ Local Hindus continued to speak their native languages, adhering to the varna hierarchy
○ Hindu worship was allowed and tolerated but people had to pay a tax, the jizya similar to southwestern empires
○ Islam in India proved that it didn’t have to be a conquering and oppressive religion
○ Buddhism was heavily mixed into Vedic Brahmanism → Hinduism
■ Practices such as nonviolence (ahimsa) and vegetarianism were absorbed
■ The two religions became so intertwined that Buddha became a deity in Hinduism
Song China: Insiders versus Outsiders:
● China is still in world power in 1000 CE, even after the fragmentation left by the Tang Dynasty
○ 907: Tang dynasty split off into many smaller regional kingdoms, governed by military generals
○ 960: Zhao Kuangyin, one of the many military generals, reunited China and ending the fragmentation
■ Prevailing and using the Mandate of Heaven as justification, he created the Song Dynasty
○ The next three centuries saw economic and political growth but:
■ Invasions from Nomadic tribes north of the region would keep the Song Dynasty from securing reign
■ A nomadic tribe called the Mongol would ultimately bring the downfall of the Song dynasty
● Song influence would have already made a massive impact on the surrounding regions, including
Southeastern Asia
● Economic and Political Developments:
○ Chinese traders had also engaged in Afro-Eurasian long distance trade
○ China’s economic success largely resulted from its strong agrarian base → Vast fields of wheat, millet, and rice
■ Able to feed a massive population of 120 million at its peak
■ Breakthroughs like the iron-plow and water buffalo allowed for this growth
○ Manufacturing flourished as well:
■ Piston-driven bellows to pump air into smelting furnaces
■ Iron production of Song China in the 11th Century could compare to Europe in the 18th century
, ○ Inventions such as gunpowder would spread through trade and lead to the creation of new weapons
■ Incendiaries → (fireworks, firelances, explosives)
■ Porcelains sedimented itself as a very unique craft from China
● Demand for porcelain in Afro-Eurasia was extremely high
○ Song Dynasty China begun to experience an early version of the first manufacturing revolution
■ Creating finished goods on a large scale to be exported for consumption world wide
■ The demand for metal currency couldn’t be met, fueling East Asia’s desire for gold
● Merchant guilds* in Shanxi developed early versions of paper money (flying cash)
○ Merchant guild: association of merchants formed for mutual benefit (protection)
● Paper money contributed to inflation later on
○ Built upon Tang Dynasty’s bureaucracy through very competitive Civil Service Exams
■ Expanded opportunities: Hereditary aristocracy → highly educated class of officials
● China’s Neighbors: Nomads, Japan, and Southeast Asia
○ Northern nomadic tribes sought to copy China → Formed dynasties and adopted Chinese institutions
■ Envisioned to conquer China → United and fought against China on the Steppes
● Despite advanced weapons, the Song army couldn’t match the united power of the nomads
○ Steel tipped arrows from crossbows, flamethrowers, and “crouching tiger” catapults
● China used its economic success to “buy off” the invaders → Economic instability + inflation
○ Leaders in Japan distanced themselves from Chinese influence but it’s still apparent that Japanese culture and arts
are heavily impacted by China:
■ Imperial court in the capital of Heian (Kyoto) was directly modeled after the Chinese Capital (Chang’an)
■ In the outskirts of Japan, less Chinese influence can be seen. Japan formed into a feudalistic society
● What was China?
○ As exchanges increased with the outside, “insiders” of China began to feel a distinct sense of cultural superiority
■ The true “insiders” of China began to call themselves the “Han” people.
■ Song China became increasingly resentful to the outside regions of China
● Calling and treating outsiders as “barbarians”
○ The invention of the printing press by Bi Sheng around 1040 made China in 1300 the most advanced in printing:
■ Books were published, classical Chinese was made the common language of educated classes
● Medical texts and calendars → Books Confucian teachings, works of history, philosophy
○ Overall, China’s strong government, huge population, and innovations as well as its tremendous impact on the
surrounding region made it not only one of the four major cultural spheres, but also the wealthiest of them.
Christian Europe:
● Highly decentralized region of very small kingdoms → United by Christianity → Start calling themselves as “European”
● The Franks: rulers of the collapsed Charlemagne Empire: Oversaw many small manors
○ Manorialism: Similar to feudalism, served as a basic unit of economic power. Manors were made up with:
■ The lords home or castle (fortified)
■ Surrounding fields for agriculture worked by peasants
■ Small village where the peasants lived
■ Mainly an agricultural based “economy”, although small forms of trade also occurred
● As many as 200,000 peasants moved from Northern Europe to central Europe between 1100 and 1200
○ The region offered freedom from their lords for peasants, despite its harsh climate and landscape
○ Lords were often unjust, imposing forced labor for the peasants
○ These new migrants created an interesting dynamic among the locals’ economy based on:
■ Gathering honey, hunting, and the slave trade
○ Small farmsteads and towns appeared along the 1000 miles coast of the Baltic Sea
● Russian lands → inspired/based off of Byzantium, located between the steppes of Inner Eurasia and Central Europe
○ Steppe: A large field or area of empty grassland, without trees or forests.
○ These cities relied on long-distance trade, unlike others that relied on agriculture
