1) French revolution
I. CONTEXT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815)
● The French Revolution was not the first of its kind; rebellions against authority,
church, and politics were common in the 16th-18th centuries.
● What made this revolution unique was its specific context and impact.
1.1. IMPACT OF THESE REVOLUTIONS
● The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689, UK):
○ Led to the abdication of a Catholic king who was replaced by a Protestant.
○ This event created a breach with the tradition of the "divine right to rule of
Kings".
○ For the first time, it meant a king needed to account for his behavior to the
people he was ruling.
● The American Revolution (1775-1783):
○ Resulted in American independence from Great Britain.
○ It established the right of representation and the right to revolt against an
"unjust" rule, challenging the idea of authority coming only from above.
1.1.1. JOHN LOCKE (1689) TWO TREATIES OF GOVERNMENT
● Two Main Premises:
○ No government can be justified by an appeal to the divine right of kings.
○ Legitimate government must be founded on the consent of the governed.
● Social Contract Theory:
○ As a liberal philosopher, Locke believed in a peaceful "State of Nature" where
rational beings could find common ground.
○ Therefore, civil government is founded on popular sovereignty, not a "blessing
from above".
● Contrast with Thomas Hobbes:
○ Hobbes also theorized about the social contract but saw popular sovereignty
as problematic and believed a constructed set of rules was necessary to
prevent society from becoming ungovernable (a "negative social contract").
1.1.2. RUN-UP TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
● Economics - Financial Bankruptcy:
○ Caused by massive expenditures by Louis XIV ("Sun King") on projects like
the Palace of Versailles.
○ Worsened by significant financial support for the American Revolution, a
move intended to weaken the rival English crown.
○ The loss of colonies in the Seven Year War further strained finances.
○ This was compounded by poor harvests, famine, and harsh taxes on the
population.
● Politics - Struggle with Provincial "Parliaments":
, ○ King Louis XVI inherited a "battle of negotiations" with provincial courts that
had the right to appeal his edicts.
○ The Dismissal of Jacques Necker: The king dismissed his popular finance
minister, who was critical of tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy and
favored borrowing money abroad over increasing taxes on commoners.
○ The Gamble of Louis XVI: The king proposed a "land tax" on all landholders,
which was rejected by the "Assembly of Notables". His attempt to bypass
them by calling a meeting of the Estates-General instigated the revolution
1.2. The Ancien Régime System
● A society of orders ("estates"), not modern classes, with a complex political and
economic structure.
1.2.1. Economics of France
● Demographic Growth:
○ The population grew from 20 million in 1700 to 25-28 million by 1780,
creating more mouths to feed.
○ It was a largely agricultural nation, with 80% of the population living in the
countryside.
● Non-Industrialised & Low Productivity:
○ Agriculture accounted for 75% of all production.
○ Productivity was low due to labor-intensive, outdated methods and small
estates created by inheritance laws.
○ The economy failed to keep up with demographic growth.
● Famine:
○ The 1780s were marked by poor harvests.
○ The harsh winter of 1788, followed by floods, led to severe food shortages in
cities.
○ Bread prices rose to consume 70-90% of an unskilled worker's daily wage.
1.2.2. Agriculture of France
● The dire state of the countryside was described by US diplomat John Adams as "a
heap of ashes" where livestock looked like "droves of walking skeletons".
1.2.3. Politics of France
● The King's Power:
○ The King ruled by divine right, but his power was restricted by moral laws
and customs; his decision-making with the king's council was based on
consultative prerogatives.
, ○ It was an absolutist rule, characterized by the absence of a constitution,
leading to LEGAL PLURALISM, where laws and punishments varied by
region.
○ Power was centralized through an "intendancy system," where
non-hereditary officials appointed by the king enforced his will in the
provinces.
● "Parliament" as a Source of Resistance:
○ The term "parliament" did not refer to a legislative body but to the 13
provincial courts of appeal, which were a "hotspot for resistance" to the
king's absolute rule.
○ Their main power was the "Droit de Remontrance": the power to appeal
royal edicts, which they used to challenge the king's authority.
● Growing Challenge to Divine Right:
○ Louis XV tried to reassert authority with his "flagellation" speech in 1766
and the "Coup de Majesté" in 1771, a reform of the justice system.
○ Louis XVI later restored the full right to appeal in a quest for popularity, which
put his own authority under immense pressure.
1.3. ESTATES-GENERAL: LEGISLATIVE BODY
● It was an advisory body to the king , presenting petitions, or grievances, ("cahiers
de doléances") from the three estates, especially on fiscal policies.
● Its last meeting before 1789 was in 1614, after which the absolute rule of the king
was established.
1.3.1. THE THREE ESTATES
● (1) First Estate (PRAYER) = Catholic Clergy:
○ Owned 5-10% of the land and was tax-exempted.
○ Were seen as responsible for the morality of the French people.
● (2) Second Estate (MILITARY) = Nobility:
○ Held a monopoly over higher administrative, military, and church functions.
○ They were exempted from most taxes.
● (3) Third Estate (WORK) = Commoners:
○ Showed great diversity, from the capitalist bourgeoisie to city workers and
peasants.
○ 80% of this estate were farmers.
○ They were responsible for most of the state's income through tax duties.
1.3.2. 1789 MEETING OF THE ESTATES-GENERAL
● The first meeting since 1614, it allowed for widespread political participation.
● The debate quickly shifted to the source of sovereign power: Sovereignty from
"ABOVE" (the king's divine right) vs. Sovereignty from "BELOW" (popular
sovereignty).
● The Representation Debate:
○ The Parliament of Paris initially decided to vote by estate, not by number,
giving the first two estates a combined veto.
, ○ A compromise was the "Doubling of the Third Estate," which gave them
610 deputies, but this was meaningless without a "vote by head".
○ The Third Estate rejected this and demanded a collective "People's
Assembly".
● Pamphlets (Feb. 1789): Abbé Sieyès published his famous pamphlet, arguing the
Third Estate is "The People" and a nation in its own right.
● The Tennis Court Oath (June 20): The Third Estate declared itself the
NATIONALIST ASSEMBLY OF PEOPLE and constituted themselves as a legitimate
authority equal to the king, vowing not to separate until a new constitution was
established.
1.3.3. FROM ELITES TO THE MASSES (THE KEY EVENTS OF 1789)
● The Storming of the Bastille (July 14): Mobs in Paris, fueled by political unrest and
anti-royal sentiment, stormed the Bastille fortress, a symbol of the king's power.
● The August Decrees:
○ August 4: The National Assembly decreed the "abolition of feudalism"
(ending servitude and noble privileges).
○ August 26: The Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen, establishing equality before the law, freedom from arbitrary
imprisonment, and fiscal equality. It declared the people as the source of
sovereignty.
● The Women's March on Versailles (Oct. 5): Riots over bread prices evolved into a
march on the palace. The King was forced to return to Paris, accept the August
decrees, and his position was permanently weakened. This event also caused a
break-up between "monarchist" and "anti-royalist" revolutionaries.
2.1. PHASE I: THE MODERATE STAGE (1789-1792)
● Main Events & Impacts:
○ 1791 Constitution creates the title "King of the French".
○ Main impact: Restructuring State-Church relations to solve national
bankruptcy.
○ Church lands sold to pay state debt.
○ Civil Constitution for the Clergy (1790) required an oath of loyalty to the
state, creating tension with the Pope.
2.1.1. REVOLUTIONARIES (A GROWING CONFLICT)
● Girondins ("Gironde"): Moderate political group with provincial ties; favoured
stabilisation and economic liberalism.
● Montagnard ("the mountain"): Radical political group with close ties to Parisian
"Les Sans-Culottes"; favoured maximum prices on food/rent.
2.1.2. RADICALISATION
● Fueled by growing fear of counter-revolution from political refugees mobilizing
support in Austria and Prussia.
● 1791: King's failed escape attempt in the "fight to Varennes".
I. CONTEXT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815)
● The French Revolution was not the first of its kind; rebellions against authority,
church, and politics were common in the 16th-18th centuries.
● What made this revolution unique was its specific context and impact.
1.1. IMPACT OF THESE REVOLUTIONS
● The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689, UK):
○ Led to the abdication of a Catholic king who was replaced by a Protestant.
○ This event created a breach with the tradition of the "divine right to rule of
Kings".
○ For the first time, it meant a king needed to account for his behavior to the
people he was ruling.
● The American Revolution (1775-1783):
○ Resulted in American independence from Great Britain.
○ It established the right of representation and the right to revolt against an
"unjust" rule, challenging the idea of authority coming only from above.
1.1.1. JOHN LOCKE (1689) TWO TREATIES OF GOVERNMENT
● Two Main Premises:
○ No government can be justified by an appeal to the divine right of kings.
○ Legitimate government must be founded on the consent of the governed.
● Social Contract Theory:
○ As a liberal philosopher, Locke believed in a peaceful "State of Nature" where
rational beings could find common ground.
○ Therefore, civil government is founded on popular sovereignty, not a "blessing
from above".
● Contrast with Thomas Hobbes:
○ Hobbes also theorized about the social contract but saw popular sovereignty
as problematic and believed a constructed set of rules was necessary to
prevent society from becoming ungovernable (a "negative social contract").
1.1.2. RUN-UP TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
● Economics - Financial Bankruptcy:
○ Caused by massive expenditures by Louis XIV ("Sun King") on projects like
the Palace of Versailles.
○ Worsened by significant financial support for the American Revolution, a
move intended to weaken the rival English crown.
○ The loss of colonies in the Seven Year War further strained finances.
○ This was compounded by poor harvests, famine, and harsh taxes on the
population.
● Politics - Struggle with Provincial "Parliaments":
, ○ King Louis XVI inherited a "battle of negotiations" with provincial courts that
had the right to appeal his edicts.
○ The Dismissal of Jacques Necker: The king dismissed his popular finance
minister, who was critical of tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy and
favored borrowing money abroad over increasing taxes on commoners.
○ The Gamble of Louis XVI: The king proposed a "land tax" on all landholders,
which was rejected by the "Assembly of Notables". His attempt to bypass
them by calling a meeting of the Estates-General instigated the revolution
1.2. The Ancien Régime System
● A society of orders ("estates"), not modern classes, with a complex political and
economic structure.
1.2.1. Economics of France
● Demographic Growth:
○ The population grew from 20 million in 1700 to 25-28 million by 1780,
creating more mouths to feed.
○ It was a largely agricultural nation, with 80% of the population living in the
countryside.
● Non-Industrialised & Low Productivity:
○ Agriculture accounted for 75% of all production.
○ Productivity was low due to labor-intensive, outdated methods and small
estates created by inheritance laws.
○ The economy failed to keep up with demographic growth.
● Famine:
○ The 1780s were marked by poor harvests.
○ The harsh winter of 1788, followed by floods, led to severe food shortages in
cities.
○ Bread prices rose to consume 70-90% of an unskilled worker's daily wage.
1.2.2. Agriculture of France
● The dire state of the countryside was described by US diplomat John Adams as "a
heap of ashes" where livestock looked like "droves of walking skeletons".
1.2.3. Politics of France
● The King's Power:
○ The King ruled by divine right, but his power was restricted by moral laws
and customs; his decision-making with the king's council was based on
consultative prerogatives.
, ○ It was an absolutist rule, characterized by the absence of a constitution,
leading to LEGAL PLURALISM, where laws and punishments varied by
region.
○ Power was centralized through an "intendancy system," where
non-hereditary officials appointed by the king enforced his will in the
provinces.
● "Parliament" as a Source of Resistance:
○ The term "parliament" did not refer to a legislative body but to the 13
provincial courts of appeal, which were a "hotspot for resistance" to the
king's absolute rule.
○ Their main power was the "Droit de Remontrance": the power to appeal
royal edicts, which they used to challenge the king's authority.
● Growing Challenge to Divine Right:
○ Louis XV tried to reassert authority with his "flagellation" speech in 1766
and the "Coup de Majesté" in 1771, a reform of the justice system.
○ Louis XVI later restored the full right to appeal in a quest for popularity, which
put his own authority under immense pressure.
1.3. ESTATES-GENERAL: LEGISLATIVE BODY
● It was an advisory body to the king , presenting petitions, or grievances, ("cahiers
de doléances") from the three estates, especially on fiscal policies.
● Its last meeting before 1789 was in 1614, after which the absolute rule of the king
was established.
1.3.1. THE THREE ESTATES
● (1) First Estate (PRAYER) = Catholic Clergy:
○ Owned 5-10% of the land and was tax-exempted.
○ Were seen as responsible for the morality of the French people.
● (2) Second Estate (MILITARY) = Nobility:
○ Held a monopoly over higher administrative, military, and church functions.
○ They were exempted from most taxes.
● (3) Third Estate (WORK) = Commoners:
○ Showed great diversity, from the capitalist bourgeoisie to city workers and
peasants.
○ 80% of this estate were farmers.
○ They were responsible for most of the state's income through tax duties.
1.3.2. 1789 MEETING OF THE ESTATES-GENERAL
● The first meeting since 1614, it allowed for widespread political participation.
● The debate quickly shifted to the source of sovereign power: Sovereignty from
"ABOVE" (the king's divine right) vs. Sovereignty from "BELOW" (popular
sovereignty).
● The Representation Debate:
○ The Parliament of Paris initially decided to vote by estate, not by number,
giving the first two estates a combined veto.
, ○ A compromise was the "Doubling of the Third Estate," which gave them
610 deputies, but this was meaningless without a "vote by head".
○ The Third Estate rejected this and demanded a collective "People's
Assembly".
● Pamphlets (Feb. 1789): Abbé Sieyès published his famous pamphlet, arguing the
Third Estate is "The People" and a nation in its own right.
● The Tennis Court Oath (June 20): The Third Estate declared itself the
NATIONALIST ASSEMBLY OF PEOPLE and constituted themselves as a legitimate
authority equal to the king, vowing not to separate until a new constitution was
established.
1.3.3. FROM ELITES TO THE MASSES (THE KEY EVENTS OF 1789)
● The Storming of the Bastille (July 14): Mobs in Paris, fueled by political unrest and
anti-royal sentiment, stormed the Bastille fortress, a symbol of the king's power.
● The August Decrees:
○ August 4: The National Assembly decreed the "abolition of feudalism"
(ending servitude and noble privileges).
○ August 26: The Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and
the Citizen, establishing equality before the law, freedom from arbitrary
imprisonment, and fiscal equality. It declared the people as the source of
sovereignty.
● The Women's March on Versailles (Oct. 5): Riots over bread prices evolved into a
march on the palace. The King was forced to return to Paris, accept the August
decrees, and his position was permanently weakened. This event also caused a
break-up between "monarchist" and "anti-royalist" revolutionaries.
2.1. PHASE I: THE MODERATE STAGE (1789-1792)
● Main Events & Impacts:
○ 1791 Constitution creates the title "King of the French".
○ Main impact: Restructuring State-Church relations to solve national
bankruptcy.
○ Church lands sold to pay state debt.
○ Civil Constitution for the Clergy (1790) required an oath of loyalty to the
state, creating tension with the Pope.
2.1.1. REVOLUTIONARIES (A GROWING CONFLICT)
● Girondins ("Gironde"): Moderate political group with provincial ties; favoured
stabilisation and economic liberalism.
● Montagnard ("the mountain"): Radical political group with close ties to Parisian
"Les Sans-Culottes"; favoured maximum prices on food/rent.
2.1.2. RADICALISATION
● Fueled by growing fear of counter-revolution from political refugees mobilizing
support in Austria and Prussia.
● 1791: King's failed escape attempt in the "fight to Varennes".
