4PAHPDFF Psychology and the Individual Week 4
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
THEORIES AND MEASUREMENT OF
INTELLIGENCE
UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS AND
CONCEPTUALISATIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence is often thought about in terms of knowledge, learning and education
• It is at the heart of many aspects of everyday life
o Perception and evaluation of others’ intelligence drives society as they drive the
decisions that you and others make (Sternberg 1985; 2001)
• Can be categorised into different types such as academic, emotional, social, etc…
o However, it is usually assumed to mean academic intelligence without explicitly
saying ‘emotional’ or ‘social’
o With a young child, we will determine intelligence as their ability to acquire physical
skills or acquire skills, whereas, as adults, we measure intelligence mostly as
academic
• Environments can affect the expression of intelligence
o One may be intelligent, but not be in an environment that fosters their type of
intelligence or let them express it in their way
CONCEPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
• Many psychological theorists have determined their own definition of what they imagined
intelligence to be (with 14 different opinions offered)
Psychological Theorist Definitions
Thorndike
• Defined intelligence as the quality of mind that separated intelligent people from the other
idiots of the day
o However, this is a somewhat circular and unhelpful definition as it essentially defines
intelligence as what makes people intelligent, which is intelligence
• He suggests it is the power of good responses from the viewpoint of truth or facts
Binet & Simon (1905)
• They were interested in understanding which children would benefit from standard education
and which would need more support
• Their definition states that intelligence is essential for practical life and encapsulates
judgement, initiative, ability to adapt to circumstances, to judge well, to comprehend well,
and to reason
Terman
• Terman defined intelligence as the ability to carry out abstract thinking
1
,4PAHPDFF Psychology and the Individual Week 4
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
Gardner: Multiple Intelligences
• Gardner proposes that intelligence should not be thought of just as high IQ scores and
academic achievement, but also in what makes one successful in other areas
o Therefore, we must capture what makes people successful at different things
• There are multiple intelligences related to multiple abilities
Sternberg: Implicit Theories
• Defined intelligence as he capacity to learn from experience and adapt to one’s environment
Spearman (1927)
• Saw intelligence as a kind of ‘mental energy’
Eysenck (1982)
• Considered intelligence as a function of the fidelity and speed of transmission of neural
signals
Anderson (1992)
• Supported Spearman and Eysenck’s ideas, proposing that general intelligence is general and
not specific to any domain of knowledge
o Therefore, it must be some kind of function of general cognitive control processes
involved in all domains of knowledge
IMPLICIT THEORIES ACROSS CULTURES
Western Versus Eastern Views
• The conception of intelligence changes depending on what area of the world you are in (e.g.
Berry, 1984; Sternberg, 2001)
o Western cultures value speed of mental processing and the ability to gather,
assimilate and sort information quickly and efficiently (Sternberg et al., 1981)
o Eastern cultures, however, extend their idea of intelligence to social, historical, and
spiritual aspects of everyday interactions, knowledge and problems solving
• There are many similarities between Western and Eastern conceptions of intelligence, but it
is the emphasis of what is most important that is different
o Western cultures emphasise how intelligence is related to the individual, whereas
non-western cultures tend to focus more on the social elements of intelligence
Similarities and Differences
Baral and Das (2004)
• Baral and Das found that in India, high levels of thinking, judgement and decision-making
were all important in intelligence
o However, it was the way in which the aspects combine that is crucial—which results
from self-awareness and consciousness
• Intelligence in India is also to show an appreciation for others, politeness, interest in others,
and modesty
• Moreover, within countries and cultures, such as India, there are also many languages and
therefore, meanings about what intelligence is
o Therefore, we need to look more deeply within countries and cultures about
intelligence
2
, 4PAHPDFF Psychology and the Individual Week 4
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
Chen and Chen (1988)
• Chen and Chen compared implicit theories of intelligence among students from Chinese
language schools as opposed to English-language schools
o Both found non-verbal reasoning, verbal reasoning, social skills, numeracy and
memory to be important descriptors of intelligence
• However, students from the Chinese-language schools rated verbal skills as less important
than did students from the English-language schools
o This suggests that we need to consider what is important within countries and
cultures to look at the nuanced differences of what intelligence is
Fang and Keats (1987)
• Fang and Keats found that both Australian and Chinese adults believe that willingness to
think, observation, a wide range of interests, and independent thinking are indicators of
intelligence
o However, the two samples differed since Australians thought problem-solving and
logical reasoning were importance
o But the Chinese adults thought the ability to learn, analytical ability, sharp thinking,
and displaying confidence were indicative of intelligence
Yang and Sternberg (1977) Five Factors of Intelligence
• Yang and Sternberg (1977) studied the conceptualisation of intelligence in philosophical
traditions in China including:
o Confucian traditions where intelligence is seen as benevolence and doing the right
thing
o Taoist traditions where intelligence is associated with humility and self-knowledge
• They studied Taiwanese Chinese people and found five factors of intelligence
1. A general cognitive factor of intelligence
o Like the Western idea of practical problem-solving and understanding
2. Interpersonal intelligence
o Relating with others harmoniously and efficiently
3. Intrapersonal intelligence
o Knowledge about the self and the ability to view oneself objectively
4. Intellectual self-assertion
o A process for individuals who are confident and aware of their impact and serve self-
worth from it
5. Intellectual self-effacement
o Modesty or humility surrounding one’s own intellect
• These results demonstrate Chinese philosophy of humility, the ability to be perspective and
show full knowledge and understanding of oneself and the world
Okagaki and Sternberg (1993)
• Okagaki and Sternberg investigated intelligence in California
o They found that Anglo-American parents gave higher value to cognitive attributes to
all others
o Parents of Latino backgrounds were more likely to see intelligence as social
competence
o Parents from Asian backgrounds saw intelligence more as motivation, self-
management, and cognitive skill
• This shows that there are differences with implicit theories of intelligence not only between
countries, but also within countries, depending on cultures
3
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
THEORIES AND MEASUREMENT OF
INTELLIGENCE
UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS AND
CONCEPTUALISATIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
• Intelligence is often thought about in terms of knowledge, learning and education
• It is at the heart of many aspects of everyday life
o Perception and evaluation of others’ intelligence drives society as they drive the
decisions that you and others make (Sternberg 1985; 2001)
• Can be categorised into different types such as academic, emotional, social, etc…
o However, it is usually assumed to mean academic intelligence without explicitly
saying ‘emotional’ or ‘social’
o With a young child, we will determine intelligence as their ability to acquire physical
skills or acquire skills, whereas, as adults, we measure intelligence mostly as
academic
• Environments can affect the expression of intelligence
o One may be intelligent, but not be in an environment that fosters their type of
intelligence or let them express it in their way
CONCEPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
• Many psychological theorists have determined their own definition of what they imagined
intelligence to be (with 14 different opinions offered)
Psychological Theorist Definitions
Thorndike
• Defined intelligence as the quality of mind that separated intelligent people from the other
idiots of the day
o However, this is a somewhat circular and unhelpful definition as it essentially defines
intelligence as what makes people intelligent, which is intelligence
• He suggests it is the power of good responses from the viewpoint of truth or facts
Binet & Simon (1905)
• They were interested in understanding which children would benefit from standard education
and which would need more support
• Their definition states that intelligence is essential for practical life and encapsulates
judgement, initiative, ability to adapt to circumstances, to judge well, to comprehend well,
and to reason
Terman
• Terman defined intelligence as the ability to carry out abstract thinking
1
,4PAHPDFF Psychology and the Individual Week 4
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
Gardner: Multiple Intelligences
• Gardner proposes that intelligence should not be thought of just as high IQ scores and
academic achievement, but also in what makes one successful in other areas
o Therefore, we must capture what makes people successful at different things
• There are multiple intelligences related to multiple abilities
Sternberg: Implicit Theories
• Defined intelligence as he capacity to learn from experience and adapt to one’s environment
Spearman (1927)
• Saw intelligence as a kind of ‘mental energy’
Eysenck (1982)
• Considered intelligence as a function of the fidelity and speed of transmission of neural
signals
Anderson (1992)
• Supported Spearman and Eysenck’s ideas, proposing that general intelligence is general and
not specific to any domain of knowledge
o Therefore, it must be some kind of function of general cognitive control processes
involved in all domains of knowledge
IMPLICIT THEORIES ACROSS CULTURES
Western Versus Eastern Views
• The conception of intelligence changes depending on what area of the world you are in (e.g.
Berry, 1984; Sternberg, 2001)
o Western cultures value speed of mental processing and the ability to gather,
assimilate and sort information quickly and efficiently (Sternberg et al., 1981)
o Eastern cultures, however, extend their idea of intelligence to social, historical, and
spiritual aspects of everyday interactions, knowledge and problems solving
• There are many similarities between Western and Eastern conceptions of intelligence, but it
is the emphasis of what is most important that is different
o Western cultures emphasise how intelligence is related to the individual, whereas
non-western cultures tend to focus more on the social elements of intelligence
Similarities and Differences
Baral and Das (2004)
• Baral and Das found that in India, high levels of thinking, judgement and decision-making
were all important in intelligence
o However, it was the way in which the aspects combine that is crucial—which results
from self-awareness and consciousness
• Intelligence in India is also to show an appreciation for others, politeness, interest in others,
and modesty
• Moreover, within countries and cultures, such as India, there are also many languages and
therefore, meanings about what intelligence is
o Therefore, we need to look more deeply within countries and cultures about
intelligence
2
, 4PAHPDFF Psychology and the Individual Week 4
BSc Psychology Year 1 Theories and Measurement of Intelligence
Chen and Chen (1988)
• Chen and Chen compared implicit theories of intelligence among students from Chinese
language schools as opposed to English-language schools
o Both found non-verbal reasoning, verbal reasoning, social skills, numeracy and
memory to be important descriptors of intelligence
• However, students from the Chinese-language schools rated verbal skills as less important
than did students from the English-language schools
o This suggests that we need to consider what is important within countries and
cultures to look at the nuanced differences of what intelligence is
Fang and Keats (1987)
• Fang and Keats found that both Australian and Chinese adults believe that willingness to
think, observation, a wide range of interests, and independent thinking are indicators of
intelligence
o However, the two samples differed since Australians thought problem-solving and
logical reasoning were importance
o But the Chinese adults thought the ability to learn, analytical ability, sharp thinking,
and displaying confidence were indicative of intelligence
Yang and Sternberg (1977) Five Factors of Intelligence
• Yang and Sternberg (1977) studied the conceptualisation of intelligence in philosophical
traditions in China including:
o Confucian traditions where intelligence is seen as benevolence and doing the right
thing
o Taoist traditions where intelligence is associated with humility and self-knowledge
• They studied Taiwanese Chinese people and found five factors of intelligence
1. A general cognitive factor of intelligence
o Like the Western idea of practical problem-solving and understanding
2. Interpersonal intelligence
o Relating with others harmoniously and efficiently
3. Intrapersonal intelligence
o Knowledge about the self and the ability to view oneself objectively
4. Intellectual self-assertion
o A process for individuals who are confident and aware of their impact and serve self-
worth from it
5. Intellectual self-effacement
o Modesty or humility surrounding one’s own intellect
• These results demonstrate Chinese philosophy of humility, the ability to be perspective and
show full knowledge and understanding of oneself and the world
Okagaki and Sternberg (1993)
• Okagaki and Sternberg investigated intelligence in California
o They found that Anglo-American parents gave higher value to cognitive attributes to
all others
o Parents of Latino backgrounds were more likely to see intelligence as social
competence
o Parents from Asian backgrounds saw intelligence more as motivation, self-
management, and cognitive skill
• This shows that there are differences with implicit theories of intelligence not only between
countries, but also within countries, depending on cultures
3
