Crime and Deviance
1. Functionalist and Subcultural Theories
= functionalism sees society based on value consensus
Durkheim:
→ crime is inevitable - this is because it strengthens the shared culture or collective
conscience which can result in lower levels of deviance and therefore is necessary
→ boundary maintenance - crime produces a reaction from society, uniting its members in
condemnation of the wrongdoer and reinforcing their commitment to shared norms and
values. Purpose of punishment is to reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce social
solidarity
→ adaptation and change - too much crime threatens to tear the bonds of society apart.
Too little means that society is repressing and controlling its members too much, stifling
individual freedom and preventing change
Merton’s Strain Theory: (people engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to
achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means)
→ conformity = accept culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately -
most likely among M/C individuals who have good opportunities to achieve them
→ innovation = accept the goal of money success but use “new”, illegitimate means such
as theft or fraud to achieve it
→ ritualism = give up on trying to achieve the goals, but have internalised the legitimate
means and so they follow the rules for their own sake
→ retreatism = reject both the goals and the legitimate means and become dropouts
→ rebellion = reject the existing society’s goals and means, but they replace them with new
ones in a desire to bring about revolutionary change
Subcultural Theories (Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin):
Cohen:
→ argue that W/C boys face anomie in the M/C dominated school system. Suffer from
cultural deprivation and lack the skills to achieve. As a result of being unable to achieve
status by legitimate means (education), the boys suffer status frustration. They resolve their
frustration by rejecting mainstream M/C values and they turn to other boys in the same
situation, forming or joining a delinquent subculture - offers the boys an alternative status
hierarchy in which they can achieve as they create their own illegitimate opportunity
structure in which they can win status from their peers through their delinquent actions
Cloward & Ohlin: (there is unequal access to illegitimate opportunity structures)
→ criminal subcultures = provide youths with an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian
crime. Arise only in neighbourhoods with a longstanding and stable criminal culture with an
established hierarchy of professional adult crime
→ conflict subcultures = arise in areas of high population turnover. Results in high levels of
social disorganisation and prevents a stable professional criminal network developing. Only
illegitimate means opportunities are available within loosely organised gangs. Violence
provides a release for young men’s frustration at their blocked opportunities as well as
achieving status that they can earn by winning ‘turf’ (territory)
→ retreatist subcultures = in any neighbourhood, not everyone aspires to be a
professional criminal or a gang leader actually succeeds - just as in the legitimate
,opportunity structure, where not everyone gets a well-paid job. What becomes of these
‘double failures’ those who fail in both the legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures.
Many turn to a retreatist subculture based on illegal drug use
2. Marxist Theories
Traditional Marxism: (sturcal theory)
→ marxists agree with labelling theorists that the law is enforced disproportionately against
the W/C and that therefore the official crime statistics cannot be taken at face value but
labelling theories fail to examine the wider structure of capitalism
→ criminogenic capitalism = capitalism is based on the exploitation of the W/C. Therefore,
it’s damaging to the working class and may give rise to crime - creating conditions that make
crime inevitable. This is because capitalism breeds inequality, greed, and alienation. The
W/C may commit utilitarian crimes out of economie necessity (e.g. theft) and the ruling class
may commit white-collar and corporate crimes to further profits. David Gordon argues that
crime is a rational response to the capitalist system and hence it is found in all social classes
- even though official stats make it seem largely among the W/C
→ the state and law making = the law only serves the interests of the capitalist class as
they control the state (creating and enforcing) and the laws tend to protect them rather than
addressing crimes of the powerful. William Chambliss argues that laws to protect private
property are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy.
- In his 1975 research, Chambliss examined how British colonial authorities in East
Africa created and enforced laws to benefit British business interests. The British
introduced laws against trespassing and vagrancy, which made it illegal for local
populations to move freely or occupy land. The aim was to force the local population
into wage labour on British-owned plantations and businesses. These laws ensured a
cheap and reliable workforce, essential for colonial economic interests. This shows
that the law wasn’t created to protect everyone equally but to serve the interests of
the ruling class (British elites and colonial powers).
→ ideological function of law = some laws appear to benefit everyone and promote
fairness, but actually legitimate and maintain class inequality. Laws like health and safety
regulations and minimum wage laws give the impression that the state cares about workers,
but their real function is to keep workers fit and productive. The focus on working-class crime
diverts attention from the crimes of the rich. Frank Pearce argues that laws occasionally
benefitting workers mask the true nature of capitalism and help maintain the system.
Neo-Marxism (Critical Criminology):
→ Taylor et al = agree with marxist that capitalist society is based on exploitation and class
conflict and characterised by extreme inequalities of wealth and power. State makes laws in
the interest of the capitalist class and capitalism should be replaced by a classless society.
HOWEVER, they argue that Marxism is too deterministic. Instead, they take a more
voluntarist view (we have free will and not like others who claim crime is caused by other
external factors such as anomie, subcultures or labelling, or biological and psychological
factors). See crime as meaningful action and a conscious choice by the actor, often a poltical
motive
, Crimes of the powerful
→ white collar and corporate crime = ‘white collar crime’ coined by Sutherland as these
are crimes committed by individuals in high-status occupations such as fraud,
embezzlement. And corporate crime is crime which is committed on behalf of a corporation
to benefit the company e.g. tax evasion, environmental offences.
→ Tombs = highlights how corporate crime is often far more damaging than street crime, yet
it is under-reported and under-punished
- Corporate crime occurs in many sectors: finance (fraud, insider trading), health and
safety (negligence), environment (pollution), employment (wage theft). Financial
crimes such as tax evasion, bribery, money laundering and illegal accounting
- Crime against employees - Health and safety violations can lead to workplace deaths
or long-term illness (e.g., unsafe factories, chemical leaks).
- Crime against the environment - environmental crimes can cause irreversible
damage to ecosystems and human health (e.g., BP oil spill).
→ the invisibility of corporate crime = crimes of the powerful are relatively invisible or
when visible are often not seen as ‘real’ crime at all
- The media - focuses on street crime, ignoring white-collar crime (due to powerful
media owners and advertisers).
- Crimes of complex - crimes like tax fraud or insider trading are complex and hard to
detect.
- De-labelling - powerful actors label their actions as “misconduct” or “error”, not crime.
→ explanations of corporate crime
- Strain theory - Box (linked to Merton): Companies face pressure to meet profit goals
("innovation" by breaking laws and more tempted to do so).
- Differential association - Sutherland: Deviant behaviour is learned through
association with others in corporate culture (e.g., norms of risk-taking, cutting
corners).
- Labelling theory - Cicourel: Negotiation of justice – powerful groups can avoid being
labelled criminal.
- Marxism - Box and Tombs: Capitalism’s pursuit of profit encourages corporate
crime. The law reflects ruling-class interests, often ignoring corporate offences.
3. Interactionist and Labelling Theories
= labelling theorists are interested in how and why certain acts come to be defined or
labelled as criminal in the first place. No act is inherently criminal or deviant in itself. Only
comes to be so when others label it as such - society's reaction
Becker:
→ moral entrepreneurs are what Becker calls the people who lead to a moral ‘crusade’ to
change the law. Agencies of social control are more likely to label certain groups of people
as deviant or criminal and therefore this when they are labelled
Lemert: (primary deviance refers to deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled.
secondary deviance is the result of societal reaction - that is, of labelling)
→ master status = being caught and publicly labelled as a criminal can involve being
stigmatised, shamed, humiliated, shunned or excluded from normal society. Once an
1. Functionalist and Subcultural Theories
= functionalism sees society based on value consensus
Durkheim:
→ crime is inevitable - this is because it strengthens the shared culture or collective
conscience which can result in lower levels of deviance and therefore is necessary
→ boundary maintenance - crime produces a reaction from society, uniting its members in
condemnation of the wrongdoer and reinforcing their commitment to shared norms and
values. Purpose of punishment is to reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce social
solidarity
→ adaptation and change - too much crime threatens to tear the bonds of society apart.
Too little means that society is repressing and controlling its members too much, stifling
individual freedom and preventing change
Merton’s Strain Theory: (people engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to
achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means)
→ conformity = accept culturally approved goals and strive to achieve them legitimately -
most likely among M/C individuals who have good opportunities to achieve them
→ innovation = accept the goal of money success but use “new”, illegitimate means such
as theft or fraud to achieve it
→ ritualism = give up on trying to achieve the goals, but have internalised the legitimate
means and so they follow the rules for their own sake
→ retreatism = reject both the goals and the legitimate means and become dropouts
→ rebellion = reject the existing society’s goals and means, but they replace them with new
ones in a desire to bring about revolutionary change
Subcultural Theories (Cohen, Cloward & Ohlin):
Cohen:
→ argue that W/C boys face anomie in the M/C dominated school system. Suffer from
cultural deprivation and lack the skills to achieve. As a result of being unable to achieve
status by legitimate means (education), the boys suffer status frustration. They resolve their
frustration by rejecting mainstream M/C values and they turn to other boys in the same
situation, forming or joining a delinquent subculture - offers the boys an alternative status
hierarchy in which they can achieve as they create their own illegitimate opportunity
structure in which they can win status from their peers through their delinquent actions
Cloward & Ohlin: (there is unequal access to illegitimate opportunity structures)
→ criminal subcultures = provide youths with an apprenticeship for a career in utilitarian
crime. Arise only in neighbourhoods with a longstanding and stable criminal culture with an
established hierarchy of professional adult crime
→ conflict subcultures = arise in areas of high population turnover. Results in high levels of
social disorganisation and prevents a stable professional criminal network developing. Only
illegitimate means opportunities are available within loosely organised gangs. Violence
provides a release for young men’s frustration at their blocked opportunities as well as
achieving status that they can earn by winning ‘turf’ (territory)
→ retreatist subcultures = in any neighbourhood, not everyone aspires to be a
professional criminal or a gang leader actually succeeds - just as in the legitimate
,opportunity structure, where not everyone gets a well-paid job. What becomes of these
‘double failures’ those who fail in both the legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures.
Many turn to a retreatist subculture based on illegal drug use
2. Marxist Theories
Traditional Marxism: (sturcal theory)
→ marxists agree with labelling theorists that the law is enforced disproportionately against
the W/C and that therefore the official crime statistics cannot be taken at face value but
labelling theories fail to examine the wider structure of capitalism
→ criminogenic capitalism = capitalism is based on the exploitation of the W/C. Therefore,
it’s damaging to the working class and may give rise to crime - creating conditions that make
crime inevitable. This is because capitalism breeds inequality, greed, and alienation. The
W/C may commit utilitarian crimes out of economie necessity (e.g. theft) and the ruling class
may commit white-collar and corporate crimes to further profits. David Gordon argues that
crime is a rational response to the capitalist system and hence it is found in all social classes
- even though official stats make it seem largely among the W/C
→ the state and law making = the law only serves the interests of the capitalist class as
they control the state (creating and enforcing) and the laws tend to protect them rather than
addressing crimes of the powerful. William Chambliss argues that laws to protect private
property are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy.
- In his 1975 research, Chambliss examined how British colonial authorities in East
Africa created and enforced laws to benefit British business interests. The British
introduced laws against trespassing and vagrancy, which made it illegal for local
populations to move freely or occupy land. The aim was to force the local population
into wage labour on British-owned plantations and businesses. These laws ensured a
cheap and reliable workforce, essential for colonial economic interests. This shows
that the law wasn’t created to protect everyone equally but to serve the interests of
the ruling class (British elites and colonial powers).
→ ideological function of law = some laws appear to benefit everyone and promote
fairness, but actually legitimate and maintain class inequality. Laws like health and safety
regulations and minimum wage laws give the impression that the state cares about workers,
but their real function is to keep workers fit and productive. The focus on working-class crime
diverts attention from the crimes of the rich. Frank Pearce argues that laws occasionally
benefitting workers mask the true nature of capitalism and help maintain the system.
Neo-Marxism (Critical Criminology):
→ Taylor et al = agree with marxist that capitalist society is based on exploitation and class
conflict and characterised by extreme inequalities of wealth and power. State makes laws in
the interest of the capitalist class and capitalism should be replaced by a classless society.
HOWEVER, they argue that Marxism is too deterministic. Instead, they take a more
voluntarist view (we have free will and not like others who claim crime is caused by other
external factors such as anomie, subcultures or labelling, or biological and psychological
factors). See crime as meaningful action and a conscious choice by the actor, often a poltical
motive
, Crimes of the powerful
→ white collar and corporate crime = ‘white collar crime’ coined by Sutherland as these
are crimes committed by individuals in high-status occupations such as fraud,
embezzlement. And corporate crime is crime which is committed on behalf of a corporation
to benefit the company e.g. tax evasion, environmental offences.
→ Tombs = highlights how corporate crime is often far more damaging than street crime, yet
it is under-reported and under-punished
- Corporate crime occurs in many sectors: finance (fraud, insider trading), health and
safety (negligence), environment (pollution), employment (wage theft). Financial
crimes such as tax evasion, bribery, money laundering and illegal accounting
- Crime against employees - Health and safety violations can lead to workplace deaths
or long-term illness (e.g., unsafe factories, chemical leaks).
- Crime against the environment - environmental crimes can cause irreversible
damage to ecosystems and human health (e.g., BP oil spill).
→ the invisibility of corporate crime = crimes of the powerful are relatively invisible or
when visible are often not seen as ‘real’ crime at all
- The media - focuses on street crime, ignoring white-collar crime (due to powerful
media owners and advertisers).
- Crimes of complex - crimes like tax fraud or insider trading are complex and hard to
detect.
- De-labelling - powerful actors label their actions as “misconduct” or “error”, not crime.
→ explanations of corporate crime
- Strain theory - Box (linked to Merton): Companies face pressure to meet profit goals
("innovation" by breaking laws and more tempted to do so).
- Differential association - Sutherland: Deviant behaviour is learned through
association with others in corporate culture (e.g., norms of risk-taking, cutting
corners).
- Labelling theory - Cicourel: Negotiation of justice – powerful groups can avoid being
labelled criminal.
- Marxism - Box and Tombs: Capitalism’s pursuit of profit encourages corporate
crime. The law reflects ruling-class interests, often ignoring corporate offences.
3. Interactionist and Labelling Theories
= labelling theorists are interested in how and why certain acts come to be defined or
labelled as criminal in the first place. No act is inherently criminal or deviant in itself. Only
comes to be so when others label it as such - society's reaction
Becker:
→ moral entrepreneurs are what Becker calls the people who lead to a moral ‘crusade’ to
change the law. Agencies of social control are more likely to label certain groups of people
as deviant or criminal and therefore this when they are labelled
Lemert: (primary deviance refers to deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled.
secondary deviance is the result of societal reaction - that is, of labelling)
→ master status = being caught and publicly labelled as a criminal can involve being
stigmatised, shamed, humiliated, shunned or excluded from normal society. Once an
